Ijj  ill  piijilii: 


v^amUi^.  AGRIC.  DEPT.    ^^-t.»^ 


v 


TEXT-BOOK  OF 
GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS 

FOR  VETERINARIANS 

BY 

EUGEN  FROHNER 

PRIVY  COUNCILLOR  AND  PROFESSOR  OF  SPECIAL  PATHOLOGY  AND  THERAPEUTICS  IN  THE 
VETERINARY  COLLEGE  AT  BERLIN 


AUTHORIZED  TRANSLATION  FROM  THE  FOURTH  REVISED 
GERMAN  EDITION 

BY 

LOUIS  A.  KLEIN 

PROFESSOR  OF  PHARMACOLOGY  AND  VETERINARY  HYGIENE  IN  THE  SCHOOL  OF  VETSRINA&T 
MEDICINE  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  AND  DEAN  OF  THE  FACULTY 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


/ 


^It 


ts? 


Copyright,  1914,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Compant 


Cv/^ 


FBIMTBD   BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 

AT  THE  WASHINGTON  SQUARE  PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA.  U.  S.  A. 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE 

The  popularity  of  Frohner's  General  Therapeutics  among 
veterinarians  to  whom  it  is  accessible  in  German  and  the  lack  of  a 
similar  work  in  English  suggested  this  translation,  which  it  is 
hoped  will  prove  equally  as  serviceable  to  American  and  English 
veterinarians.  A  few  additions  which  have  been  made  to  the  text, 
most  of  them  of  an  explanatory  character,  have  been  placed 
between  brackets  ([]).  The  German  regulations  governing  dis- 
infection for  the  different  infectious  diseases  have  been  included  in 
the  translation;  while  they  do  not  have  the  force  of  law  in  this 
country,  the  methods  they  describe,  with  some  allowance  for  differ- 
ences in  conditions,  are  also  applicable  here.  The  etymological 
footnotes  explaining  the  derivation  of  the  terms  referring  to 
therapeutic  action  have  been  omitted.  In  the  descriptions  of  the 
therapeutic  uses  of  the  individual  drugs,  the  names  used  in  the 
United  States  Pharmacopoeia  and  in  the  United  States  Dispensa- 
tory have  been  employed,  and  these  have  been  followed,  wherever 
it  seemed  desirable,  by  the  common  or  English  name.  Non- 
official  drugs  are  indicated  by  an  asterisk  (*) .  Doses  are  given  in 
the  metric  system,  as  in  the  original,  with  the  equivalent  in  the 
apothecaries'  system. 

Louis  A.  Klein. 

Philadelphia,  July,  1914. 


293569 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION 

In  the  new  edition  of  General  Therapeutics  the  chapters  on 
chemotherapy,  protective  vaccination,  and  disinfection  have  been 
rewritten.  The  "therapia sterilisans  magna"  of  Ehrlich  has  become 
of  great  importance  to  veterinarians,  although  at  the  beginning  of 
its  introduction  the  judgment  concerning  it  was  too  optimistic 
(contagious  pneumonia!).  Considerable  development  has  also 
occurred  in  the  last  ten  years  in  the  field  of  protective  vaccination. 
The  more  complete  vaccination  statistics  now  available  make  pos- 
sible a  more  exact  judgment  concerning  the  value  or  worthlessness 
of  the  different  immune  sera.  More  recent  observations  have 
compelled  a  partial  modification  of  our  views  in  regard  to  disinfec- 
tion; this  is  especially  true  in  respect  to  preliminary  disinfection 
and  its  relation  to  cleaning.  The  new  German  veterinary  sanitary 
law  has  been  included  in  the  revision.  The  reader  will  also  find 
numerous  changes  and  improvements  in  other  chapters. 

E.  Frohner. 
Berlin. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 

After  I  had  written  special  text-books  on  Pharmacology, 
including  pharmacognosy  and  pharmaceutical  chemistry,  on  Pre- 
scription Writing,  and  on  Toxicology,  there  remained  as  a  final 
task,  in  my  restricted  department  of  instruction.  General  Thera- 
peutics. The  present  book  is  therefore  a  supplemental  and  con- 
cluding volume  to  the  first  three. 

The  presentation  of  the  fundamentals  of  general  therapeutics 
will  always  remain  a  difiicult  undertaking.  No  department  of 
medicine  undergoes  such  frequent  changes  in  methods  and  opinions 
as,  therapeutics.  A  permanent  system  of  general  therapeutics 
cannot  be  set  forth,  especially  in  our  own  day,  in  which  great 
changes  have  occurred  in  the  domain  of  general  pathology,  the  for- 
mer absolute  domination  of  the  cellular  pathology  being  to  some 
extent  shaken  by  the  developments  in  serum  therapy  and  the  old 
humoral  pathology  again  appearing  in  the  scheme.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  discussion  must  rather  be  limited  to  a  presentation  and 
interpretation  of  the  present  status  of  the  knowledge  concerning  the 
subject.  This  applies  especially  to  the  two  modem  questions  of 
the  day  in  general  therapeutics, — namely,  disinfection  and  vac- 
cination. But  there  are  several  other  questions  which  at  this 
time  have  not  been  definitely  settled;  for  instance,  the  nature  of  the 
antipyretic,  diuretic,  expectorant,  cholagogue,  and  derivative 
actions.  To  find  the  correct  middle  ground  in  the  midst  of  all  this 
uncertainty  is  not  easy.  If  there  is  in  anything  an  imminent 
temptation  to  present  an  extreme  optimistic  or  pessimistic  con- 
ception, it  is  certainly  the  case  with  general  therapeutics.  At  any 
rate,  it  is  always  commendable  in  a  text-book  prepared  for  students 
and  young  veterinarians  to  accept  the  positive  rather  than  the 
negative  stand-point  in  doubtful  cases.  To  fill  a  studious  young 
man  at  the  outset  with  nihilistic  views  concerning  the  efficacy  of 
this  or  that  therapeutic  method  appears  to  me  to  be  more  hazard- 
ous than  if  one  in  good  faith  presented  some  particular  curative 
system  perhaps  in  a  somewhat  too  optimistic  light.  There  will  be 
an  opportunity  in  practice  later  to  test  everything  and  to  retain  the 
best.  But  if  the  practitioner,  on  account  of  preconceived  opinions 
brought  with  him  from  school,  excludes  one  and  another  curative 


viii  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 

method  from  this  test,  there  will  necessarily  result  a  narrowness  in 
therapeutic  methods. 

A  second  diflficulty  in  the  preparation  of  a  text-book  on  general 
therapeutics  is  the  abundance  of  material.  One  must  here  choose 
between  a  broad,  voluminous  discussion  or  a  short,  concise  pres- 
entation. I  am  fully  aware  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  two  plans.  I  decided  that  this  book  should  be  as  concise 
as  possible,  because,  for  one  reason,  among  others,  we  already  have 
in  our  veterinary  literature  a  large  and  valuable  text-book  on 
therapeutics  (EUenberger),  in  which  the  assistance  of  nature  in 
healing  and  the  history  of  therapeutics  especially  are  given  a  large 
amount  of  space.  Therefore,  I  have  limited  my  discussion  of  the 
subject  to  a  presentation  of  artificial  assistance. 

There  are  yet  to  be  subjoined  some  observations  concerning  the 
relations  between  veterinary  curative  methods  and  those  of  human 
medicine.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  veterinary  medicine  we 
have  derived  very  many,  if  not  the  most,  of  our  therapeutic  con- 
ceptions from  human  medicine.  But  it  may  not  also  be  known 
that  there  are  several  curative  methods  peculiar  to  veterinary 
medicine,  as,  for  instance,  blisters,  the  actual  cautery,  lactagogues 
and  ruminatorics;  and  that  some  methods,  as  vaccination  and  dis- 
infection, are  much  more  extensively  employed  in  veterinary 
than  in  human  medicine.  The  prophylactic  measures  also  show, 
as  is  well  known,  a  greater  stage  of  development,  especially  in 
reference  to  combating  epidemics  (sanitary  laws),  in  the  domain 
of  veterinary  medicine  than  in  that  of  human  medicine,  in  which 
in  our  day  preparations  were  first  made  for  the  formulation  of  sani- 
tary laws.  On  the  other  hand,  different  highly  developed  curative 
methods  in  human  medicine  can  never  obtain  practical  considera- 
tion in  veterinary  medicine, — for  example,  pneumotherapy,  bal- 
neotherapy, climatotherapy,  mechanotherapy,  orthopaedics,  sug- 
gestive therapy,  etc.  Those  who  are  interested  in  these  subjects 
must  be  referred  to  the  text-books  on  General  Therapeutics  by 
Ziemssen,  A.  Hoffman,  and  others. 

Finally,  in  justification  of  the  introduction  of  the  numerous 

etymological   footnotes  into  the  book,  I  may  remark  that  on 

account  of  the  strangeness  of  many  of  the  therapeutic  terms  a  short 

explanation  seemed  to  me  to  be  necessary  in  the  interest  of  students. 

Beeun.  E.  Frohner. 


CONTENTS 

PAQB 

Introduction 1 

The  History  op  Therapeutics 9 

1.  Hippocrates 10 

2.  Galen 12 

3.  Paracelsus 14 

4.  Boerhaave 17 

6.  Brown 18 

6.  Rademacher 19 

7.  The  Homceopathy  of  Hahnemann 19 

8.  The  Cellular  Pathology  of  Virchow 21 

9.  The  Serum  Therapy  of  von  Behring 22 

10.  The  Chemotherapy  of  Ehrlich 23 

General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  of  the  Organs  op  Digestion  25 

I.  General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  op  the    Stomach  25 

1.  Dietetic  Treatment 29 

2.  Medicines.    (Stomach  Remedies.    Stomachics) 29 

3.  Mechanical  Treatment 33 

4.  Operative  Treatment 34 

II.  Emetics 34 

III.  General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  op  the  Intestines  38 

1.  Dietetic  Treatment 40 

2.  Cathartics.    Laxatives 40 

3.  Constipating  Remedies.    Styptics 48 

4.  Mechanical  and  Operative  Treatment 51 

IV.  General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  op  the  Liver  ...  52 

1.  Cholagogues.    Stimulants  to  Bile  Secretion 54 

2.  Dietetic  and  Mechanical  Methods 55 

General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  of  the  Organs  op  Circu- 

LATIQN ;  • .  56 

I.  General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  op  the  Heart.  . .  56 

Cardiacs.    Heart  Remedies 57 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

II.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Blood...  60 

Dietetic  Method.    Blood-forming  Remedies.   Blood  Plastics .  63 

III.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Blood- 

vessels   64 

1.  Methods  of  Arresting  Hemorrhage 66 

2.  Vasomotor  Stimulants.        Drugs  that  Contract  Blood- 

vessels   71 

3.  Vasodilators.    Agents  that  Dilate  Blood-vessels 72 

IV.  General  Therapeutics  op  the  Exudates  and  Transudates. 

Resorbents 73 

Resorbing  Medicines.    Resorbents  76 

General  Therapeutics  of  Fever 80 

Medical  Antipj^etics 84 

General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System.  .  88 

Drugs  Acting  on  the  Nerves.     Neurotics.     Nervines 90 

1.  Stimulants  to  the  Nervous  System.     Excitants 93 

2.  Drugs  that  Calm  the  Nerves.    Sedatives 97 

3.  Narcosis  and  Anaesthesia 101 

General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  Appa- 
ratus   *. 103 

Expectorants 107 

General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs.  112 

Diuretics 113 

General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  op  the  Genital  Organs.  118 

1.  Ecbolics.    Abortives 119 

2.  Drugs  that  Stimulate  the  Sexual  Impulse.   Aphrodisiacs 120 

3.  Drugs  that  Depress  the  Sexual  Impulse.   Anaphrodisiacs 121 

4.  Drugs  that  Increase  Milk  Secretion.   Galactagogues 122 

5.  Drugs  that  Depress  Milk  Secretion.    Antigalactagogues. . . .  127 
General  Therapeutics  op  the  Glands  (Diaphoretics  and  Siala- 

GOGUES) 128 

1.  Drugs  that  Stimulate  the  Secretion  of  Sweat.    Diaphoretics .  129 

2.  Drugs  that  Stimulate  the  Secretion  of  Saliva.  Sialagogues . .  131 
General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  op  Metabolism 133 

1.  Plastic  Remedies.    Plastics 134 

2.  Nutrients.    Roborants 137 

3.  Reducing  Remedies.    Antiplastics 138 


CONTENTS  xi 

General  Therapeutics  of  Diseases  of  the  Eye 141 

1.  Pupil-dilating  Remedies.    Mydriatics 141 

2.  Pupil-contracting  Remedies.    Myotics 142 

General  Therapeutics  of  the  Skin  and  Mucous  Membranes  ....  143 

1.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Skin 144 

2.  Cutaneous  Irritants.    Aeries 146 

3.  Caustics 152 

4.  Firing.    Cauterization 156 

5.  Astringents 157 

Drugs  that  Kill  Parasites.    Antiparasitics 160 

1.  External  Antiparasitics.    Antepizoa 160 

2.  Worm  Remedies.    Anthelmintics 165 

Disinfectants.    Antiseptics 169 

1.  Disinfection  in  General 169 

2.  Disinfection  for  Infectious  Animal  Diseases 183 

I.  Supplement  A  to  the  Instructions  of  the  Federal 
Council,  December  25,  1911  (Disinfection  in  Infec- 
tious Diseases) 184 

II.  The  Most  Important  Disinfectants  for  Animal  Infections  201 

3.  Disinfection  of  Wounds 209 

4.  Internal  Antiseptics 213 

5.  The  Conservation  of  Animal  Products 214 

Antidotes 216 

Vaccination.    Immunization.    Inoculation 225 

1.  Immunity,  Mitigation,  and  Methods  of  Inoculation 225 

2.  The  Different  Varieties  of  Vaccination 235 

I.  Protective  Vaccination 236 

Veterinary  PoHce  Regulations  Concerning  Vaccina- 
tion   237 

Protective  Vaccination  for   the  Different  Animal 

Infections 237 

^  II.  Curative  Vaccination 252 

III.  Diagnostic  Inoculation 254 

Water  as  a  Remedy.    Hydrotherapy 265 

Massage 276 

Electricity  as  a  Remedy.     Electrotherapy 282 


zu 


CONTENTS 


Bleeding 286 

General  Therapeutics  op  the  Organs  op  Locomotion  (Muscles, 
Tendons,  Nerves,  Articulations,    Bones) 288 

Indipferent  Remedies.   Mechanicals 290 

1.  Protectives 290 

2.  Emollients 291 

3.  Cleansing  Remedies 292 

Am  AS  A  Remedy 295 

Index 297 


TEXT-BOOK  OF 

GENERAL   THERAPEUTICS 

FOR  VETERINARIANS 


INTRODUCTION 

Natiiral  and  Artificial  Healing. — In  the  healing  of  disease  two 
possibihties  are  to  be  considered.  The  disease  is  healed  by  the 
curative  forces  of  nature  without  the  assistance  of  medicines 
(natural  healing),  or  artificial — i.e.,  medical — healing  processes 
are  necessary  (artificial  healing).  Whether  a  disease  can  be  left  to 
nature's  powers  or  whether  medical  treatment  is  expedient  or  neces- 
sary is  the  question  which  the  therapeutist  must  first  consider 
carefully  in  every  case.  What  may  be  healed  by  nature?  What 
may  be  healed  by  medical  treatment?  To  these  questions  may  be 
added  a  third:  What  is  usually  inciirable? 

1.  What  May  be  Healed  by  Nature? — The  answer  to  this 
question  may  be  based  upon  clinical  observations  and  experi- 
mental investigations  in  general  surgery  and  pathology.  In  sur- 
gery as  well  as  in  pathology  it  has  been  demonstrated  repeatedly 
that  the  natural  healing  force  and  the  regenerative  capacity  of  the 
individual  tissue  cells  and  organs  are  extraordinarily  great.  The 
spontaneous  healing  of  wounds  and  fractures  of  bones,  the  reactive 
protective  processes  of  the  body  in  inflammation  (local  leucocy- 
tosis)  and  in  fever  (general  leucocytosis),  the  spontaneous  checking 
of  hemorrhage,  the  organization  of  a  thrombus,  the  encapsulation 
of  purulent  areas  and  of  foreign  bodies,  the  restoration  of  epi- 
thelium and  of  nerve-fibres,  the  formation  of  anastomoses,  anky- 
loses (spavin,  ring  bone),  and  nearthroses,  the  throwing  off  of  gan- 
grenous parts,  the  resorption  processes  in  pneumonia  and  pleurisy, 
the  compensatory  processes  of  the  heart,  kidneys,  liver,  and  lungs, 
the  spontaneous  healing  and  natural  immunity  of  the  infectious 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION 

diseases  (aphthous  fever,  strangles,  influenza,  contagious  pneu- 
monia), the  spontaneous  recoveries  from  colic  in  numerous  cases, 
and  many  other  natural  healing  and  corrective  processes  verify 
this  statement. 

A  clear  insight  into  the  nature  of  spontaneous  healing  is  afforded 
by  a  study  of  the  processes  of  inflammation.  While  the  inflam- 
matory changes  were  formerly  regarded  as  harmful  and  were  com- 
bated with  remedies  that  reduce  inflammation,  especially  cold,  it  is 
now  known  that  inflammation  is  a  healing  reaction  and  should 
not  be  opposed  but  favored.  Just  as  fever,  pain,  cough,  vomiting, 
diarrhoea,  and  other  disease  phenomena  exert  a  natural  healing 
tendency  in  removing  and  combating  the  cause  of  disease,  so  do 
the  processes  attending  inflammation  constitute  a  natural  elimi- 
native  and  healing  process.  The  dilation  and  hypersemia  of  the 
vessels;  the  change  in  the  capillary  walls  by  which  they  become 
permeable;  the  out-wandering  of  the  white  blood-cells  (local 
leucocjrtosis)  and  the  exudation  of  blood-plasma  into  the  tissues; 
the  removal  of  endotoxins  from  the  inflamed  area  by  phagocy- 
tosis; the  proliferation  of  the  autochthonous  connective-tissue 
cells;  the  liquefaction  and  resolution  of  the  solid  inflammatory- 
products  by  enzymes  (lysins) ;  the  occurrence  of  toxin-binding,  neu- 
tralizing antitoxins,  of  bacteria-destroying  humoral  and  leucocytic 
bactericides  (bacteriolysins),  of  bacteria-clumping  agglutinins,  and 
of  opsonins  which  prepare  the  bacteria  to  be  taken  up  by  phagocy- 
tosis; the  leucocytosis  of  the  blood  (lymphocytes,  neutrophiles, 
eosinophile  leucocytes);  positive  and  negative  chemotaxis;  the 
regeneration  of  the  injured  tissue-cells  by  increased  growth  of 
cells;  proliferation  of  tissues  and  capsule  formation — all  these  are 
nothing  more  than  protective  and  healing  processes  directed 
against  the  causes  of  disease,  especially  bacteria,  and  to  the  regener- 
ation of  the  injured  tissue,  such  regeneration  occurring  in  living, 
healthy  animal  bodies  through  the  adaptability  and  reproductive 
powers  of  the  cells.  These  natural  eliminative  and  regenerative 
processes  should  not  be  disturbed  by  improper  treatment,  but 
should  be  regarded  as  natural  healing  processes  and  not  only 
favored  but  even  stimulated  under  certain  circumstances. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

2.  What  May  be  Healed  Artificially? — The  problem  of  artificial 
assistance  consists  above  all  in  supporting,  promoting,  and  acceler- 
ating the  natural  healing  processes.  Natura  sanat  medicus  curat. 
Disinfected,  ligatured,  and  bandaged  wounds,  reduced  bone  frac- 
tures, and  incised  abscesses  heal  better  and  more  rapidly  than  when 
left  entirely  to  nature's  efforts.  This  is  also  true  of  the  artificial 
removal  of  fluid  exudates  (hydrothorax,  ascites,  acute  hydro- 
cephalus, laminitis),  and  of  the  medicinal  treatment  of  heart  weak- 
ness and  dangerously  high  fever,  pulmonary  congestion,  cerebral 
hyperaemia  (phlebotomy),  and  numerous  other  diseases. 

In  many  cases  natural  healing  entirely  fails  to  remove  the  dis- 
ease. Then  it  is  only  curable  through  artificial  methods.  Sur- 
gery and  obstetrics  are  especially  rich  in  examples  of  this  kind. 
To  this  class  of  cases  belong  most  of  the  neoplasms  and  parasitic 
diseases,  especially  mange,  deviations  in  the  position  of  the  foetus 
and  of  the  gravid  uterus,  invaginations  and  incarcerations  of  the 
intestines,  hemiae  and  prolapses,  ulcers  and  fistulae,  urinary  calculi, 
foreign  bodies  in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  tympanites  of  the 
rumen  and  intestines,  wounds  of  the  carotid  artery,  etc. 

3.  What  is  Incurable? — The  answer  to  this  question  will  depend 
upon  the  present  extent  of  medical  knowledge.  There  is  a  large 
number  of  diseased  conditions  which  are  incurable  in  spite  of  all 
discoveries  and  therapeutic  progress,  and  which  will  probably 
remain  so  in  the  future.  A  dead  tissue  or  organ  cannot  be  replaced 
in  its  original  form.  Incurable  also  are  atrophic  conditions, 
chronic  hydrocephalus,  chronic  interstitial  nephritis  and  hepatitis, 
ankyloses,  many  neoplasms  in  internal  organs,  fractures  of  the  cer- 
vical, dorsal,  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve, 
detachment  of  the  retina,  emphysema  of  the  Jungs,  progressive 
atrophy  of  the  posterior  crico-arytenoid  muscle  (roaring),  general- 
ized carcinomatosis,  sarcomatosis,  tuberculosis,  and  actinomycosis, 
echinococcus  disease,  glanders,  and  rabies.  In  the  large  domestic 
animals  (horses,  cattle)  fractures  of  the  upper  bones  of  the  extrem- 
ities, severe  pelvic  fractures,  purulent  inflammation  of  the  large 
joints,  and  perforating  wounds  of  the  intestines  are,  as  a  rule, 
incurable.    Many  diseased  conditions  are  curable  in  man  that  are 


4  INTRODUCTION 

incurable  in  animals,  because  in  the  treatment  of  animals  the 
external  conditions  necessary  to  healing  are  not  obtainable  in  the 
same  degree  as  in  the  treatment  of  man.  For  instance,  many  bone 
fractures  in  horses  and  cattle  are  incurable  because  a  fixation  dress- 
ing cannot  be  applied  to  the  part  affected.  Some  operations  can 
not  be  performed  on  large  animals  because  of  the  difficulty  of  main- 
taining asepsis.  Furthermore,  the  task  of  the  veterinarian  is 
essentially  different  from  that  of  the  physician.  Frequently,  the 
purpose  of  veterinary  therapeutics  is  not  the  healing  of  disease, 
but  to  make  the  animal  serviceable.  A  horse  with  an  ampu- 
tated leg  is,  indeed,  healed,  but  is  not  serviceable.  Neurectomy, 
on  the  other  hand,  does  not  heal  ring  bone  or  spavin,  but  it 
makes  the  horse  again  serviceable.  Even  economical  considera- 
tions (value  of  the  animal,  time  required  for  treatment)  often 
govern  the  veterinary  therapeutist. 

Remedies  and  Medicines. — The  remedies  which  may  be  used 
in  the  treatment  of  disease  are  numerous  and  various.  The  term 
remedy  does  not  signify  the  same  thing  as  medicine  or  drug;  the 
latter  is  only  a  special  form  of  the  former.  There  is  not  always, 
as  is  frequently  incorrectly  assumed  by  the  laity,  a  sharp  contrast 
between  medical  and  drugless  treatment  (so-called  natural  method). 
On  the  contrary,  the  same  therapeutic  effect  produced  by  drugs 
may  frequently  be  obtained  from  other,  non-medical  remedies, — 
e.g.,  through  mechanical  methods.  In  general,  dietetic,  chemical 
(medicines),  mechanical  (massage,  hydrotherapy),  thermic  (heat, 
cold),  electrical  (electrotherapy),  and  operative  measures  are  to  be 
considered  as  therapeutic  remedies.  Also  of  importance  as  healing 
factors  are  rest,  movement,  and  exercise.  Disinfection,  inocula- 
tion, and  sanitary  police  regulations  are  of  especial  value  in  com- 
bating infectious  diseases. 

If,  after  the  use  of  this  or  that  therapeutic  measure,  the  disease 
is  cured,  this  is  not  in  itself  proof  that  the  treatment  applied  was  the 
cause  of  the  cure.  Post  hoc  is  not  propter  hoc.  On  the  contrary, 
every  recovery  should  be  considered  candidly  and  objectively  to 
determine  what  share  in  the  cure  is  to  be  credited  to  the  healing 
powers  of  nature  and  what  part  was  played  by  the  therapeutic 


INTRODUCTION  5 

measures  employed.  The  observance  of  this  rule  is  very  neces- 
sary, especially  in  veterinary  therapeutics.  Fallacious,  speculative 
conclusions  from  meagre  casuistic  material,  and  unjustifiable  com- 
mendation and  overrating  of  new  remedies  are  in  veterinary  medi- 
cine almost  more  common  than  in  human  medicine. 

Healing  Methods. — General  therapeutics  differs  considerably 
from  special  therapeutics  and  pharmacology.  The  latter  con- 
siders in  a  detailed  manner  the  actions  and  uses  of  the  individual 
medicines  in  the  different  diseases.  General  therapeutics  em- 
braces the  different  views  concerning  the  treatment  of  diseases 
and  the  action  of  remedies  in  general.  Out  of  the  sum  of  indi- 
vidual observations  it  constructs  certain  general  rules  and  laws, 
on  which  are  based  the  employment  and  systematic  grouping  of 
the  curative  agents.  Such  a  consideration  of  the  healing  agents 
naturally  leads  to  the  formulation  of  the  so-called  healing  methods. 
General  therapeutics  can  therefore  be  defined  as  the  study  of  the 
healing  methods. 

The  number  of  healing  methods  has  been  large  from  the  remotest 
times.  From  an  entirely  general  standpoint  there  are  usually 
distinguished  as  special  healing  methods  the  direct,  indirect,  and 
derivative,  the  local  and  general,  the  causal,  radical,  and  symp- 
tomatic, the  empirical,  statistical,  rational,  and  physiological,  and 
the  prophylactic,  expective,  abortive,  and  vit^^Conceming  the 
nature  of  these  methods,  the  following  may  be  s8Bid: 

1.  The  direct  healing  method  consists  in  the  direct  or  imme- 
diate application  of  the  remedy  to  the  disease  {indicatio  morhi). 
A  direct  therapeutic  process,  for  example,  is  the  employment  of 
antiseptics,  antiparasitics,  and  antidotes — the  bacteria,  parasites, 
and  poisons  concerned  being  directly  influenced.  Other  examples 
are  the  use  of  caustics  and  many  operations  (extirpation  of  tumors, 
removal  of  foreign  bodies). 

2.  The  indirect  healing  method  attacks  the  disease  through  the 
medium  of  the  circulation  and  the  nervous  system.  It  is,  therefore, 
also  called  the  general  method.  This  method  includes  the  dietetic 
medicines,  which  influence  disease  through  nutrition  and  metab- 
olism; the   resorbents   and   derivatives,  which   act  through  the 


6  INTRODUCTION 

circulation;  and  cutaneous  irritation,  which  operates  reflexly 
through  the  nervous  system  upon  the  distant  disease  process.  The 
derivative  action  is  also  regarded  as  an  independent  healing  method. 
This  action  can  be  attained  through  the  operation  of  cutaneous 
stimulation,  cathartics,  diuretics,  diaphoretics,  sialagogues,  and 
bleeding.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  of  all  diseases  are 
treated  by  the  indirect  method,  because  only  in  isolated  cases  can 
the  therapeutic  measures  be  applied  directly  to  the  disease. 

3.  The  causal  method  attacks  not  the  disease  itself  but  the 
cause,  e.g. /in  the  infectious  diseases,  the  bacteria;  in  poisonings,  the 
poison.  To  this  extent  it  agrees  with  the  direct  method.  With 
reference  to  its  value,  it  must  be  observed  that  the  removal  of  the 
cause  is  only  possible  in  certain  diseases  (surgical  measures,  anti- 
sepsis, antiparasitics,  antidotes,  emetics,  cathartics).  Further- 
more, after  the  removal  of  the  cause  the  disease  frequently  does 
not  cease,  e.g.,  rheumatic  diseases  after  the  removal  of  the  cold 
irritant;  and  finally,  in  many  diseases  the  cause  is  either  not  acces- 
sible (distomatosis,  echinococci)  or  is  not  known  (ultravisible  virus, 
epilepsy,  diabetes  mellitus). 

4.  The  radical  method  is  directed  against  the  root  or  source  of 
the  disease  and  not  merely  to  the  removal  of  the  associated  dis- 
turbances. As  the  definition  indicates,  the  radical  method  is 
related  partly  to  the  causal  and  partly  to  the  direct  (local)  method. 
Goitre  and  actinomycosis  may  be  treated  indirectly  through  the 
medium  of  the  blood  stream  with  iodine.  The  radical  method 
consists  in  the  operative  removal  of  the  diseased  parts.  In  a  simi- 
lar manner  are  herniae  and  urinary  calculi  treated  radically, — i.e., 
by  operation.  Unfortunately,  there  are  only  a  small  number  of 
diseases  in  which  complete  restoration  can  be  attained  by  the 
radical  method. 

5 .  The  symptomatic  or  palliative  method  is  directed  against 
neither  the  cause  of  the  disease  nor  the  disease  itself,  but  only 
against  the  sjrmptoms  of  the  disease.  In  the  infectious  diseases, 
for  example,  the  fever  is  treated,  in  laryngeal  catarrh  the  cough,  in 
gastric  catarrh  the  vomiting,  in  intestinal  catarrh  the  diarrhoea,  in 
brain  diseases  the  psychic  excitement  and  convulsions,  in  lameness 


INTRODUCTION  7 

the  pain  (neurotomy).     Practical  experience  teaches  that  in  very 
many  cases  treatment  must  be  confined  to  this  method. 

6.  The  rational  or  physiological  method  is  based  upon  scientific 
observations  and  experimental  investigations  of  the  cause,  nature, 
and  pathogenesis  of  the  different  diseases,  and  the  action  of  the 
individual  medicines.  The  therapeutist  seeks  to  explain  scientifi- 
cally the  action  of  his  remedies  upon  the  basis  of  the  contempo- 
raneous knowledge  of  therapeutics.  Inflammation  and  the  infec- 
tious diseases,  for  instance,  are  caused  by  the  action  of  micro- 
organisms and  are  therefore  treated  with  antiseptics;  the  diseases  of 
the  heart  with  drugs  whose  physiological  action  upon  the  heart 
has  been  exactly  investigated  (digitalis). 

7.  The  empirical  healing  method  is,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
rational,  based  upon  practical  experience  only,  without  the  nature 
of  the  disease  and  the  action  of  the  remedies  being  considered 
scientifically  in  connection  with  each  other.  This  method  includes 
the  former  common  employment  of  potassium  nitrate,  calomel, 
phlebotomy,  and  the  other  so-called  antiphlogistics  in  the  inflam- 
matory diseases.  It  should  be  the  endeavor  of  scientific  thera- 
peutics to  extend  the  rational  method  more  and  more  and  to  reduce 
empiricism.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that 
our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  disease  and  of  the  action  of  healing 
remedies  is  not  yet  so  complete  that  the  empirical  method  can  be 
dispensed  with  entirely.  Furthermore,  many  valuable  thera- 
peutic measures,  which  are  at  this  time  regarded  as  rational,  were 
discovered  in  a  purely  empirical  manner  (massage,  hydrotherapy, 
folk-medicines).  The  statistical  healing  method  is  in  a  certain 
sense  a  subdivision  of  the  empirical.  It  is  based  upon  the  statis- 
tical demonstration  of  the  effectiveness  of  a  remedy  or  a  cure. 

8.  The  expectant  or  waiting  method  leaves  the  mastery  of  the 
disease  to  the  healing  powers  of  nature  and  resorts  to  medication 
only  when  the  automatic  regulation  of  the  body  fails.  It  conforms 
in  part  to  the  dietetic  method,  and  is  very  properly  practised  more 
in  recent  times  than  formerly.  Especially  in  the  infectious  dis- 
eases with  a  typical  course  (influenza,  contagious  pneumonia, 
strangles,    foot-and-mouth    disease)    is   therapeutic    interference 


8  INTRODUCTION 

indicated  only  when  certain  abnormal  complications  appear  (very- 
high  fever,  heart  weakness,  diarrhoea,  etc.).  The  same  principle 
also  applies  to  catarrh  of  the  upper  air-passages,  gastric  catarrh, 
intestinal  catarrh,  and  to  numerous  surgical  conditions  (distor- 
tions, tendinitis,  spavin,  etc.). 

9.  The  prophylactic  method  is,  strictly  speaking,  not  a  curative 
method,  but  a  process  of  preventing  the  occurrence  of  disease  and 
its  extension  to  healthy  animals.  Nevertheless,  it  is  of  great  impor- 
tance ("Prevention  is  better  than  cure*')-  It  consists  in  attention 
to  hygiene,  dietetics,  rational  breeding  and  feeding,  disinfection, 
and  the  sanitary  police  measures  for  controlling  disease. 

10.  The  abortive  method  combats  disease  in  its  initial  or  for- 
mative stage.  Emetics  and  calomel  appear  to  have  an  abortive 
effect  against  certain  infectious  diseases  (canine  distemper,  swine 
erysipelas)  in  consequence  of  their  action  in  removing  the  cause  of 
the  infection  from  the  body.  In  poisonings  an  abortive  cure  can 
be  spoken  of  in  the  same  sense.  This  is  also  true  of  arecoline  and 
phlebotomy  in  laminitis  and  in  cerebral  inflammation,  likewise  of 
amputation  of  the  tail  in  tetanus  resulting  from  infection  of  a 
wound  in  the  tail.  On  the  other  hand,  the  claim  that  contagious 
pneumonia  of  horses  is  influenced  by  the  intravenous  injection  of 
salvarsan,  in  the  sense  that  inflammation  of  the  lungs  does  not 
develop  or  that  complications  and  secondary  diseases  do  not 
occur,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  proved. 

11.  The  conservative  method  aims  at  the  greatest  possible  con- 
servation of  the  diseased  organ.  In  veterinary  surgery  it  has  a 
certain  importance  (preservation  of  cutaneous  flaps  in  abraded 
wounds  and  also  in  wounds  of  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  and  of  the 
eyelids). 

12 .  The  vital  method  (vital  cure,  indicatio  vitalis)  concerns 
itself  with  the  preservation  of  life  when  it  is  suddenly  threatened  in 
the  course  of  a  disease.  It  is  really  a  symptomatic  method  (trache- 
otomy in  pharyngitis  and  oedema  of  the  glottis;  bleeding  in  oedema 
of  the  lungs;  puncture  of  the  pleural  cavity,  peritoneal  cavity,  the 
rumen,  intestines,  and  bladder  when  collections  of  fluids  or  gas 
threaten  life). 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS 

The  history  of  therapeutics,  or  medicine,  extends  far  back 
into  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  earliest  traditions  are  derived 
from  Indian  (Upavedas,  Agurveda,  Susrutah  des  Dramoantari), 
Egyptian  (Isis,  Osiris,  Horus,  Harpocrates,  priest  medicine),  and 
Hebraic  (Moses,  Levites,  prophets,  Essenes)  literature.  Very  old 
also  is  the  Chinese  medicine  (Ching  de  chung  Ching).  But  the 
real  scientific  therapeutics  begins  only  with  the  Greeks,  with 
an  introductory  period  which  may  be  designated  as  the  philo- 
sophical (Thales  of  Miletus,  Pythagoras,  Alcmseon,  Empedocles, 
Anaxagoras,  Democritus).  The  Grecian  medicine  was  also  in  the 
beginning  a  "priest  medicine."  The  so-called  Asclepiadae  were 
associations  of  priests,  purported  to  be  founded  by  ^Esculapius  the 
god  of  medicine,  who  held  temple-polyclinics  in  which  they  prac- 
tised their  secret  medical  art,  which  was  transmitted  by  oral  com- 
munication. Out  of  one  of  these  temples  of  Asclepiadae  at  Cos 
came  Hippocrates  (400  B.C.),  the  founder  of  Grecian  medicine. 
His  teachings,  the  humoral  pathology,  entirely  dominated  Grecian 
and  later  also  Roman  medicine;  its  influence  extended  even  through 
the  middle  ages  into  modem  times  (sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies). The  writings  of  Galen  (131-200  a.d.), which  were  regarded 
as  medical  dogma  of  Biblical  authority  throughout  the  entire 
middle  ages,  a  period  of  not  less  than  fifteen  hundred  years,  are 
nothing  more  than  an  amalgamation  of  the  medicine  of  Hippoc- 
rates with  the  philosophy  of  Plato.  The  Arabian  school  (900- 
1000  A.D.)  introduced  by  Rhazes  and  Avicenna,  and  the  so-called 
Monks'  medicine,  especially  the  school  at  Salerno  (about  1100 
A.D.),  were  also  founded  upon  the  teachings  of  Hippocrates.  The 
Arabian  school  also  included  the  new  factors  of  alchemy  and 
spiritualism. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  Paracelsus  (1493-1541)  began  the 
actual  reformation  of  the  Galenic  and  Hippocratic  teachings. 
Believing  chemistry  to  be  the  basis  of  therapeutics,  he  created  his 

9 


10  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

system  of  chemiatrics  or  iatrochemistry,  but,  as  he  was  strongly 
under  the  influence  of  the  spirituahsm  of  the  Arabian  school,  his 
ideas  in  part  acquired  a  mysticism.  The  scientific  foundation  of 
modem  therapeutics  was  laid  in  the  period  from  the  sixteenth  to 
the  eighteenth  century  by  exact  anatomical,  pathological,  phys- 
iological, and  clinical-pharmacological  investigations.  Prominent 
in  this  work  were  Vesalius  (1514-1564),  Fallopius  (1523-1562), 
Malpighi  (1628-1694),  the  founder  of  modem  anatomy  and  his- 
tology; Morgagni  (1682-1771), the  creatorof  pathological  anatomy; 
Harvey  (1578-1 657), the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
and  f  ounderof  physiology;  Ambroise  Par^  (1517-1590) ,  the  reformer 
of  surgery,  and  Sydenham  (1624-1689),  the  master  of  practical 
clinical  medicine. 

A  special  position  in  the  modem  history  of  therapeutics  is  held 
by  Boerhaave  (1668-1738),  the  founder  of  the  modem  humoral 
pathology  (haematopathology) ;  Brown  (1735-1788),  the  author  of 
Brownianism;  Rademacher  (1772-1849),  the  author  of  the  experi- 
ence or  empirical  method;  Hahnemann  (1755-1843),  the  father  of 
homoeopathy,  and  also  several  discoverers  of  natural  healing 
methods,  especially  Hufeland  (1762-1836),  Schonlein  (1794-1864), 
and  Priessnitz  (1799-1851). 

The  history  of  modern  therapeutics  in  the  nineteenth  and  twen- 
tieth centuries  lacks  the  prominent,  central  character  of  former 
periods,  because  it  consists  of  the  special  history  of  the  several 
branches  into  which  medicine  has  been  divided.  Of  general  cura- 
tive methods,  only  three  are  of  importance:  the  cellixlar  therapy  of 
Virchow,  the  serum  therapy  of  von  Behring,  and  the  chemotherapy 
of  Ehrlich.  The  first  locates  the  disease  and  also  the  healing 
powers  in  the  cells,  the  second  uses  the  therapeutic  action  of  the 
immune  bodies  of  the  blood-serum  (antitoxins),  and  the  third 
treats  certain  infectious  diseases  (protozoa,  trypanosomes,  spirilla) 
with  specific  chemical  substances. 

1.  HIPPOCRATES 
Biographical. — Hippocrates  was  bom  in  the  year  460  B.C.,  on 
the  island  of  Cos,  in  Asia  Minor,  the  son  of  Heraclides,  one  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  11 

AsclepiadaB  and  a  teacher  in  the  medical  temple  school  at  Cos.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Pericles.  He  travelled  in  Asia  Minor, 
Greece,  Scythia,  and  Lybia  and  resided  subsequently  in  Thes- 
saly,  where  he  died  in  Larissa  in  364  (375?).  He  published 
the  medical  secrets  of  the  priests  of  the  Asclepiadae  and  his  own 
experiences  in  several  books  (Aphorisms,  Prognostics,  Epidem- 
ics, Treatment  of  Inflammatory  Diseases,  Wounds  of  the 
Head,  Herniae).  His  expression,  "  Life  is  short,  art  is  long,  oppor- 
tunity fleeting,  experience  deceptive,  judgment  difficult,"  is  well 
known. 

The  Theory  of  Hippocrates. — The  humoral  pathology  of  Hippoc- 
rates attributed  all  diseases  to  changes  in  the  fluids  of  the  body. 
The  body  contained  four  cardinal  fluids  or  humors:  the  blood,  the 
mucus,  the  yellow  and  the  black  bile.  The  normal  mixture  of  these 
four  fluids  {i.e.,  health)  is  the  crasia,  while  an  unequal  mixture 
generates  disease,  or  dyscrasia.  The  problem  of  therapeutics  is 
to  change  dyscrasia  into  crasia.  This  can  be  accomplished  in  three 
ways:  1,  by  removal  of  the  superfluous  fluid, — e.g.,  of  the  blood 
by  phlebotomy,  of  the  bile  by  cholagogues,  of  mucus  by  drugs  that 
increase  the  secretion  of  mucus  (derivative,  depletive  method);  2, 
by  altering  or  rendering  harmless  the  superfluous  fluid  in  the  body 
by  cooking,  ripening,  or  transforming, — pepsis,  coctio,  maturatio, 
alteratio  (alterative  method);  3,  by  restoring  deficient  cardinal 
fluids  (dietetic  method). 

In  addition  to  the  crasia  theory,  Hippocrates  also  formulated  a 
crisis  theory.  According  to  this  latter  theory  the  fever  reaches  the 
crisis  or  turning  point  on  certain  so-called  critical  days.  The 
seventh  day  especially  was  regarded  as  the  critical  day  and  as  the 
proper  time  for  therapeutic  interference.  Depleting  drugs  espe- 
cially were  administered  on  these  days  to  increase  the  critical  elimi- 
nations. Cathartics  and  emetics,  especially  the  vegetable  drastics 
(veratrum,  euphorbium,  daphne),  were  used  for  their  derivative 
action.  Phlebotomy  was  employed  to  reduce  fever  only  in  strong 
and  full-blooded  individuals.  In  addition  to  the  external  reme- 
dies, he  assumed  the  presence  of  an  internal,  primitive  healing  force 
which  induces  the  crisis. 


12  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Aristotle,  also  of  a  family  of  AsclepiadsB;  lived  from  384  to  322  b.c;  was 
teacher  of  Alexander  the  Great;  pupil  of  Plato;  founder  of  natural  history  and 
comparative  anatomy;  teacher  of  the  elementary  quaUties;  discovered  the 
nerves  and  gave  the  aorta  its  name. 

Herophilus  and  Erasistratus,  celebrated  anatomists  of  the  Alexandrine 
school  (time  of  the  Ptolemies).  Herophilus  discovered  the  sensibility  of  the 
nerves,  the  finer  anatomy  of  the  eye,  distinguished  between  systole  and 
diastole,  and  named  the  duodenum.  Erasistratus  discovered  the  lymph- 
vessels  and  healed  hver  abscesses  by  operative  incision. 

2.  GALEN 

Biographical. — Claudius  Galenus  was  born  in  Pergamos,  131 
A.D.,  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  builder.  After  pursuing  a  course  of  study  in  philosophy,  he 
studied  four  years  in  the  school  of  the  Pergamonic  physicians.  He 
then  visited  Smyrna  and  Corinth,  Asia  Minor  and  Palestine,  and 
finally  the  at  that  time  celebrated  medical  school  at  Alexandria, 
where  anatomy  especially  had  flourished  from  ancient  times  and 
where  alone  the  dissection  of  the  human  body  was  permitted.  In 
addition,  toxicology  was  there  thoroughly  taught.  Poisons  and 
antidotes  at  that  time  formed  the  chief  part  of  pharmacology. 
Returning  to  Pergamos  in  159,  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
gladiators.  In  165  he  received  an  appointment  under  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius  in  Rome,  where  he  gave  lectures  on  physiology  and 
prepared  the  royal  electuary,  a  mixture  of  62  drugs.  The  prescrip- 
tion was  written  by  Andromachos,  the  physician  of  Emperor  Nero, 
and  was  obtained  from  the  Alexandria  school.  In  180  Galen  was 
the  physician  of  Emperor  Commodus,  and  in  193  of  Emperor  Sep- 
timius  Severus.  He  died  in  the  year  200  a.d.  His  numerous  writ- 
ings, in  all  about  500,  were  destroyed  in  great  part  through  the 
burning  of  the  Temple  of  Peace  in  the  reign  of  Commodus.  Eighty- 
three  medical  works  were  preserved,  among  them  the  writings  on 
'*HeaHng  Methods,"  "Critical  Days,"  "Functions  of  the  Parts  of 
the  Human  Body,"  "Combination  and  Force  of  the  Simple  Medi- 
cines," and  "Differentiation  of  the  Different  Varieties  of  Pulse." 

The  teachings  of  Galen  were  later  acknowledged  even  by  the 
church;  doubt  of  their  correctness  was  regarded  as  sacrilege.     His 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  13 

dogmas  received  a  consideration  only  equalled  by  that  given  to  the 
Bible,  and  because  of  this  were  a  serious  hindrance  to  the  develop- 
ment of  medicine  for  the  succeeding  fifteen  hundred  years.  When 
the  students  of  medicine  explained  that  dissection  was  necessary  to 
discover  the  errors  of  Galen,  the  church  forbade  the  opening  of 
human  bodies  and  stated  that  Galen  never  could  have  erred  and 
that  dissections  were  therefore  not  only  imnecessary  but  would  be 
reprehensible. 

Pergamos,  his  native  city,  had  golden  medals  struck  in  honor  of 
Galen,  and  he  was  for  other  reasons  well  aware  of  his  position,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  statement:  "Hippocrates  indeed  had  made 
something  of  a  track  and  broken  the  path,  but  I  have  smoothed  it 
and  made  it  passable,  as  Emperor  Trajan  did  with  the  military 
roads  in  the  Roman  Empire. " 

The  Galenic  Theory. — The  humoral  pathology  of  Hippocrates, 
with  its  four  cardinal  fluids  and  the  crasis  and  crisis  theories,  was 
the  nucleus  of  the  Galenic  system  of  medicine.  In  addition  to  dys- 
crasia,  Galen  regarded  as  causes  of  disease  changes  in  the  so-called 
elementary  qualities  (heat,  cold,  dryness,  and  moisture).  Natural, 
primary  forces  of  the  body  were  attraction,  adhesion,  secretion 
(apocritical),  and  elimination.  He  assumed  that  every  medicine 
possessed  specific  elementary  qualities.  In  his  anatomical  and 
physiological  studies  he  came  very  close  to  the  discovery  of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood.  He  was  convinced  that  respiration  served 
to  maintain  the  body  heat;  he  compared  the  respiration  with 
combustion  and  contended  that  the  flame  and  animal  life  were 
supported  by  the  same  constituents  of  the  atmosphere.  These 
constituents  he  called  "air  spirits,"  and,  after  they  were  taken 
into  the  blood,  "life  spirits"  (spiritus  vitalis).  Fever  was  an 
unnatural  change  in  the  temperature.  The  lightest  form  of 
fever,  the  *' ephemeral,"  occurred  when  only  the  "air  spirits" 
were  embarrassed.  If  the  blood  and  fluids  were  affected,  there 
arose  "septic"  or  putrid  fever.  When  the  heart  and  solid  parts 
of  the  body  became  hot,  then  the  fever  was  "hectical."  A 
fever  continuing  one  day  was  due  to  mucus;  three  days,  to  yellow 
bile;  four  days,  to  black  bile. 


14  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Arabian  Medicine. — Its  foundation  was  the  theories  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galen.  Added  to  these  were  the  new  elements  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy. 
As  alchemists,  the  Arabian  physicians  discovered  analysis,  synthesis,  distil- 
lation, sublimation,  precipitation,  preparation  of  salts,  and  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol.  They  were  also  beUevers  in  spirituaUsm,  and  considered  medi- 
cines as  the  bearers  of  a  spirit,  to  which  their  power  was  due.  The  most 
celebrated  Arabian  physicians  were  Rhazes  (923  a.d.)  and  Avicenna  (978  a.d.). 
Rhazes  was  first  a  teacher  of  medicine  and  philosophy  in  Bagdad,  later  director 
of  the  lazaretto  in  Ray.  His  works  were:  "On  the  Healing  of  Diseases," 
"Aphorisms,"  and  "Antidotes."  They  contain  the  earliest  discussion  of 
smallpox.  Medicines  mentioned  are:  mercurial  preparations,  copper  sul- 
phate, arsenic,  nitrate  of  potash.  Avicenna,  a  native  of  Bokhara,  studied 
in  Bagdad,  was  private  physician  to  the  prince  of  Ray  and  later  Vizier  in 
Hamadan.  On  account  of  an  insurrection  he  fled  to  Ispahan,  dressed  as  a 
monk.  To  his  chief  works  he  gave  the  name  of  "Canons";  they  contained 
nearly  everything  concerning  the  entire  subject  of  medicine  and  attained  a 
wide  circulation  in  Em-ope.  His  catalogue  of  medicines  was  very  extensive 
(rhubarb,  silver,  gold,  many  plants). 

Monks'  Medicine. — From  the  sixth  to  the  sixteenth  century,  a  period  of 
one  thousand  years,  in  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and  other  countries  of  western 
Emrope,  medicine  was  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  monks,  who 
conducted  special  medical  schools.  Of  the  latter  the  most  celebrated  was  the 
school  at  Salerno,  from  the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  a  NeapoUtan 
Benedictine  cloister,  where  pharmacy,  pharmacology,  and  dietetics  especially 
were  taught  (Regimen  sanitatis  Salemi,  Antidotariam  minus,  De  simpUci 
medicini,  Eros).  Another  Neapolitan  cloister  school  was  the  one  at  Monte 
Casino.  In  France,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was  the  school  of  Montpellier, 
which  later  developed  into  the  University. 

3.  PARACELSUS 

Biographical. — Philippus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastus  ab 
Hohenheim,  called  Paracelsus,  was  born  near  Zurich  in  1493,  the 
son  of  a  physician.  He  studied  in  Basel  and  travelled  in  almost  all 
the  countries  of  Europe.  In  1527  he  became  professor  of  physics, 
medicine,  and  surgery  in  Basel  and  also  city  physician,  but  left 
there  secretly  a  year  later  on  account  of  differences  with  the  munic- 
ipal authorities.  After  that  he  lived  an  unsettled,  wandering  life 
in  a  number  of  cities  in  Alsace,  Bavaria,  Wiirtemburg,  Austria, 
Switzeriand,  and  other  lands,  until,  at  the  age  of  48  years,  he  died 
in  1541,  in  Salzburg,  where  he  was  buried.    Besides  a  large  number 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  15 

of  philosophical  and  theosophical  works  he  wrote  numerous  medical 
books.  Of  the  latter  the  most  important  are:  "Commentary  on 
the  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,"  the  "Three  Great  Books  on  the 
Treatment  of  Wounds,"  "The  Hospital  Book,"  the  "Seven  Books 
on  Open  Wounds,"  "Lectures  on  Wounds,"  "Minor  Surgery," 
"The  Bath  of  the  Priests, "  "Booklet  on  the  Pestilence  in  the  City 
of  Stertzingen, "  "On  the  Gout,"  "On  Syphilis."  Opinion  con- 
cerning the  influence  of  Paracelsus  as  a  reformer  of  medicine  was 
formerly  very  much  divided.  Disregarding  his  personal  short- 
comings, with  which  his  pupils  especially  reproached  him,  and  his 
inclination  toward  mysticism,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Para- 
celsus, by  his  thorough  refutation  of  the  crasia  theory  and  humoral 
pathology  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  and  through  his  own  new, 
chemiatric  system,  exerted  a  very  great  effect  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  medicine. 

The  Theory  of  Paracelsus. — The  so-called  chemiatric,  chemical 
or  spagyrical  system  of  Paracelsus  was  the  first  to  associate  the 
chemical  properties  of  medicines  with  their  action  upon  the  body. 
He  called  these  properties  "virtue  and  force  in  medicines."  In 
opposition  to  the  humors  and  elementary  substances  of  Galen,  he 
attributed  life  and  disease  to  organic  processes  within  the  body,  and 
spoke  of  a  "vita  propria  "  of  the  organs.  Chemistry,  in  his  opinion, 
was  the  foundation  of  all  therapeutics.  We  owe  to  him  the  intro- 
duction into  the  materia  medica  of  several  important  chemicals, 
especially  iron  and  its  compounds,  the  preparations  of  antimony, 
sulphur,  copper,  zinc,  and  sodium  nitrate.  He  also  gave  exact 
indications  for  the  use  of  the  mercurial  preparations.  His  chief 
remedy  was  opium  in  the  form  of  a  tincture,  called  after  him  Tinc- 
tura  Paracelsi.  In  place  of  the  formerly  exclusively  used  decoc- 
tions, he  used  tinctures,  extracts,  and  essences.  He  also  called 
attention  to  numerous  chemical  combinations  that  were  incom- 
patible, and  was  the  first  to  discuss  the  composition  and  action  of 
mineral  waters.  His  efforts  in  the  domain  of  surgery  were  also  con- 
siderable. He  was  the  first  to  declare  that  the  surgeon  should  also 
be  a  physician.  Pus,  he  said,  was  a  "natural  balsam"  which  fav- 
ored cicatrization,  and  its  healing  action  should  not  be  interfered 


16  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

with  by  the  excessive  use  of  salves  or  plasters.  In  his  philosophical 
writings  two  terms  frequently  occur  which  are  used  in  modem 
natural  science:  macrocosmus  and  microcosmus.  The  first  term, 
as  he  used  it,  indicated  nature  as  a  whole,  the  latter  the  separate 
individuals. 

Vesal. — ^Andreas  Vesal  (Vesalius),  founder  of  modern  anatomy,  was  born 
in  Brussels  in  1514,  but  had  to  flee  from  Belgium  on  account  of  his  activity  in 
anatomical  work.  He  studied  in  Paris  under  Sylvius,  held  in  Italy  the  posi- 
tion of  demonstrator  of  anatomy,  and  in  1537  was  called  by  the  Republic  of 
Venice  to  be  professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua,  after  he  had  published  his  cele- 
brated work  "De  corporis  humani  Fabrica  libri  septem"  in  1535.  Subse- 
quently he  was  private  physician  to  Karl  V  and  Philip  II  in  Madrid.  Con- 
demned to  death  by  the.  Spanish  inquisition  as  a  magician  or  conjurer,  he  was 
pardoned  by  Philip  II  to  take  a  penitential  journey,  and  died  in  1564  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  Vesal  opposed  the  theory  of  Galen,  and  demon- 
strated, among  other  things,  that  Galen's  anatomy  was  founded  upon  the 
ape  and  not  upon  man. 

Fallopius. — Gabriel  Fallopius,  pupil  and  successor  of  Vesal,  was  born  in 
Modena  in  1523,  and  from  1547  on  was  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery 
in  Ferrara,  Pisa,  and  Padua.  He  wrote  "Observationes  Anatomicse"  in 
1561  and  discovered  the  Fallopian  canals  in  the  temporal  bone. 

Malpighi. — Marcellus  Malpighi,  1628-1694,  discovered  the  capillary  cir- 
culation and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  microscopical  anatomy  of  animals 
and  plants  (Malpighian  corpuscles  of  the  kidneys).  He  was  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  Messina,  and,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  private 
physician  to  Pope  Innocent  XII. 

Morgagni. — Giambattista  Morgagni,  founder  of  pathological  anatomy, 
pupil  of  Valsalva,  born  in  Forli  in  1682,  was  called  in  1711  to  the  University 
at  Padua  to  the  chair  formerly  held  by  Vesal.  Here  he  attracted  numerous 
students  from  all  lands,  especially  Germany.  In  1761  he  issued,  in  five  books, 
his  famous  work:  "De  Sedibus  et  Causis  Morborum."  His  name  is  a  part 
of  several  anatomical  terms  (Morgagnian  liquor  between  the  lens  and  its 
capsule,  Morgagnian  cavity).    He  died  in  1771,  89  years  old. 

Harvey. — Wilham  Harvey,  founder  of  physiology,  pupil  of  Fabricius  ab 
Aquapendente,  born  in  Folkstone  in  1578,  elected  professor  of  anatomy  in 
London  in  1615,  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  1628.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  conclusion  "omne  animal  ex  ovo,"  and  showed  that,  contrary 
to  Galen,  the  blood  was  not  one  of  four  fluids,  but  the  only  vital  fluid  ("humor 

cardinalis")- 

Ambroise  Pare. — Ambroise  Par6,  founder  of  modem  surgery  and  obstet- 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  17 

lies,  lived  in  Paris  from  1517  to  1590,  and  became  known  through  his  use  of 
ligatures  on  the  blood-vessels  in  operations. 

Sydenham. — Thomas  Sydenham,  1624  to  1689,  physician  in  London, 
reformed  practical  cUnical  medicine,  bringing  it  back  to  the  methods  of  nature 
and  of  experience.  Symptoms  of  diseases  were  regarded  by  him  as  the  effort 
of  nature  to  eliminate  the  disease  materials.  The  tincture  of  opium  was 
named  after  him  Tinctura  Sydenhami. 

4.  BOERHAAVE 

Biographical. — Herman  Boerhaave  was  bom  in  the  Netherlands 
in  1668,  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  He  became  professor  of  medicine, 
botany,  and  chemistry  in  Leyden,  where  he  published  his  cele- 
brated works:  " Institutiones  medicae  in  usum  annu2e  exercitionis" 
(1708)  and  "Aphorismi  de  cognoscendis  et  curandis  morbus" 
( 1 709) .  In  addition  to  these,  he  published  the  ' '  Elementa  chemise ' ' 
(1718).  He  died  in  1738.  His  best-known  pupil  was  van  Swieten 
(1700-1722),  the  private  physician  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa 
and  the  founder  of  the  Vienna  school. 

The  System  of  Boerhaave. — ^Boerhaave  can  be  regarded,  to  a 
certain  extent,  as  the  founder  of  the  modem  himioral  pathology, 
since  he  pointed  to  the  chemical  changes  in  the  composition  of  the 
blood  as  the  cause  and  essence  of  disease.  His  humoral  pathology 
is  therefore  a  hsemato-pathology.  The  treatment  recommended  by 
him  was  the  removal  from  the  blood  of  the  injurious  substances  or 
irritants  by  means  of  cathartics,  diuretics,  disinfectants  and  resol- 
vents. He  assumed  the  presence  of  different  kinds  of  harmful 
irritants  in  the  blood:  acid,  alkaline,  salty,  fatty  and  glutinous. 
In  his  opinion  organic  life  consisted  of  motion.  Fever  he  regarded 
as  the  effort  of  life  to  overcome  death  (compare  the  concurrence  of 
this  view  with  the  modern  idea  that  fever  is  a  protective  reaction 
against  the  infectious  material) .  Worthy  of  note  also  is  his  concep- 
tion of  inflammation,  which  he  regarded  as  a  complete  stasis  of 
blood  in  the  smaller  vessels. 

F.  Hoffmann. — Founder  of  the  so-called  iatromechanical  or  mechanico- 
dynamic  school;  bom  in  Halle  1660;  professor  in  Halle  1694;  private  physician 
to  King  Frederic  I  and  professor  in  Berlin  1708  to  1712;  died  in  Halle  in  1742. 
His  name  is  preserved  in  the  preparation  introduced  by  him  known  as  "Hoff- 
mann's drops." 
2 


18  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Stahl. — Founder  of  the  chemical  phlogiston  theory  and  the  spiritual 
theory  (principal  work:  Theoria  medica  vera,  1701);  expective  method  of 
treatment.  Bom  in  Ansbach  in  1660,  professor  in  Halle  1694;  private  physi- 
cian to  King  Frederic  William  I  in  Berhn  1716;  died  1734.  Stahl's  ointment 
for  bums  and  Stahl's  pills  perpetuate  his  name. 

Albrecht  von  Haller. — Physician,  anatomist,  physiologist,  botanist,  and 
poet.  Discoverer  of  the  irritability  of  the  muscle  fibres.  Bom  in  Bern  1708; 
professor  in  Gottingen  1736;  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  the  Sciences. 
Died  in  Bern  1777. 

5.  BROWN 

Biographical. — F.  Brown  was  bom  in  Bumbe,  England,  in  1735. 
At  first  a  linen  weaver,  he  later  studied  theology  and  medicine  and 
was  a  physician  in  London.  His  principal  work,  "  Elementa  medi- 
cinae,"  was  written  in  1780.  He  died  in  London  in  1788.  His 
most  celebrated  follower  was  the  Italian,  Rasori  (died  1837). 

Brown's  Theory. — Brown  was  the  founder  of  the  so-called 
Brownianism,  which  was  in  direct  opposition  to  the  humoral  pa- 
thology and  attributed  all  disease  to  a  deficiency  or  excess  of  stim- 
uli or  excitabiUty.  A  medium  degree  of  stimulation  or  excitability 
constituted  health.  Disease  was  due  to  either  an  increase  of  the 
excitability  (sthenia)  or  a  decrease  (asthenia).  Medicines  also 
were  sthenic,  i.e.j  strengthening  (alcohol,  camphor,  arnica),  or 
asthenic,  i.e.,  weakening  (bleeding,  hunger).  The  one-sided 
Brownian  theory  was  later  transformed  by  Roschlaub  into  the  so- 
called  "stimulation  theory'^  and  by  Rasori  into  the  theory  of 
"centra-stimulus"  (irritant  and  counter-irritant).  These  two 
modifications  of  Brownianism  are  also  only  of  historical  interest. 

Hufeland. — An  opponent  of  Brownianism,  he  contrasted  the  vital  forces, 
vis  vitaliSy  with  the  natural  heahng  forces,  vis  naturoe  medicatrix,  and  promoted 
especially  the  antipyretic  method  of  treatment  (cold-water  applications). 
His  chief  work  was  entitled  "Makrobiotik,"  published  in  1796.  Bom  in 
Langensalza  in  1762,  he  died  in  1836  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  a  professor  and 
private  physician  to  King  Frederic  WiUiam  III. 

SchSnlein. — Founder  of  the  expective  method  of  treatment.  He  regarded 
disease  as  an  independent  process  which  must  be  allowed  to  run  its  course. 
He  taught  medicine  from  the  stand-point  of  the  natural  sciences  and  intro- 
duced methods  of  chnical  examination.  The  foundations  were  laid  by  him 
of  the  so-called  natural-history  school  and  the  later  physiocratic  or  natural 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  19 

healing  method  (in  contrast  to  the  technocratic  or  artificial  healing  method). 
He  was  born  in  Bamberg  in  1793,  was  a  professor  and  clinician  in  Wiirzburg, 
Zurich,  and  Berlin  from  1839  to  1859,  and  died  in  1864. 

6.  RADEMACHER 

System  of  Treatment. — Rademacher  (born  in  1772  in  Hamm, 
physician  in  Goch,  on  the  lower  Rhine,  died  1849)  is  the  founder  of 
the  system  of  treatment  based  on  experience,  or  the  empirical 
method.  In  his  work,  "  Rechtf ertigung  der  Erfahrungsheillehre 
der  alten  scheidekiinstigen  Geheimarzte, ''  he  assumes,  entirely  upon 
empirical  grounds,  the  existence  of  specific  relations  between  certain 
medicines  and  certain  individual  organs.  Diseases  he  divided  into 
two  classes:  "organic  diseases"  and  '* universal  diseases,"  and  he 
also  recognized  two  corresponding  divisions  of  medicines:  "organic 
remedies"  with  local  action  and  "imiversal  remedies"  with  multi- 
ple action.  He  tested  the  effect  of  the  individual  organ  remedies 
and  universal  remedies  upon  the  different  diseases  and  named  the 
disease  after  the  remedy  found  to  be  effective.  The  local  diseases, 
for  example,  were  named:  digitalis  disease  of  the  heart,  chelido- 
nium  disease  of  the  liver,  and  antimony  disease  of  the  lungs,  while 
the  universal  diseases  were  called:  copper  disease,  iron  disease, 
saltpeter  disease.  In  this  way  he  caused  the  diagnosis  to  be  based 
upon  the  therapeutics.  While  the  fundamental  thoughts  of  the 
Rademacher  system  concerning  the  importance  of  experience  and 
the  specific  local  action  of  drugs  may  be  acceptable,  his  nomen- 
clature and  many  of  his  conclusions  certainly  are  not.  His  influ- 
ence upon  therapeutics  was  therefore  only  temporary. 

Natural  Healing  Method. — The  author  of  the  natural  healing  method — 
i.e.,  the  drugless  treatment  of  disease  with  water,  diet,  heat,  exercise,  rest,  air, 
and  dressing — was  Priessnitz  (1799-1851).  With  reference  to  his  method,  see 
chapter  on  hydrotherapy.  In  addition,  the  following  are  also  to  be  mentioned 
as  followers  of  the  natural  healing  method:  Schroth  (dry  diet,  dry-bread 
cure),  G.  Jager  (wool),  Lahmann  (cotton  wool),  and  others. 

7.  THE  HOMCEOPATHY  OF  HAHNEMANN 
Biographical. — Samuel    Hahnemann,  the   founder  of   homoe- 
opathy, was  born  in  Meissen  in  1755.     He  practised  medicine  in 


20  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Kothen  from  1820  to  1835,  when  he  moved  to  Paris,  where 
he  died  in  1843.  Hahemann  came  into  prominence  with  his 
new  doctrine  in  1796.  His  chief  works  were:  "  Organon  der 
rationellen  Heilkunde "  (1810)  and  "  Reine  Arzneimittel- 
lehre''    (1811). 

Hahnemann's  Theory. — Disease,  according  to  Hahnemann, 
consists  of  the  symptoms  only.  The  treatment  of  disease,  there- 
fore, consists  of  combating  and  removing  the  symptoms  (symp- 
tomatic method).  Certain  drugs  produce  in  the  healthy  organism 
symptoms  hke  those  caused  by  disease.  Digitalis,  for  example, 
produces  symptoms  exactly  similar  to  those  of  heart  disease.  In 
the  treatment  of  any  disease,  therefore,  a  drug  should  be  used  that 
will  produce  in  a  healthy  organism  symptoms  similar  to  those 
observed  in  the  particular  disease;  in  heart  disease,  for  instance, 
digitalis.  Hence  the  motto  of  homoeopathy:  Similia  similibus 
curantur. 

Hahnemann  further  maintained  that  every  drug  acted  the  more 
powerfully  the  more  it  was  diluted.  For  this  reason  a  drug  should 
always  be  administered  in  extreme  dilution,  i.e.,  in  the  smallest 
dose  possible.  Moreover,  only  one  drug  should  be  used  at  a  time. 
Allopathy,  according  to  Hahnemann,  acts  contrary  to  the  purpose. 
There  are  three  forms  of  homoeopathic  preparations:  Triturates, 
dilutions,  and  pellets.  A  triturate  of  one  part  of  the  drug  and  99 
parts  of  milk  sugar  is  called  the  first  triturate;  one  part  of  the  first 
triturate  with  99  parts  of  milk  sugar  forms  the  second  triturate,  and 
so  on.  Similarly,  the  first  dilution  or  potence  is  a  solution  of  one 
part  of  thedrugin99  parts  of  alcohol,  the  second  dilution  or  potence 
a  solution  of  one  part  of  the  first  dilution  in  99  parts  of  alcohol,  etc. 
With  these  dilutions  the  pellets,  which  are  made  of  milk  sugar,  are 
moistened. 

The  charlatanism  of  the  homoeopathic  theory  is  not  without 
effect  upon  the  laity  even  to-day.  However,  it  is  more  to  be  deplored 
that  Hahnemann  has  found  many  followers  in  medical  circles.  If, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  so-called  newer  homoeopathy  has  sought  to 
coincide  more  with  modern  investigation,  and  if,  on  the  other  hand, 
serum  therapy  in  many  respects  has  assumed  a  homoeopathic  char- 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  21 

acter,  this  cannot  change  the  judgment  concerning  the  homoeo- 
pathic fundamental  of  potency  or  dilution,  which  is  far  too  incon- 
sistent to  be  accepted  by  the  healthy  human  understanding. 

Isopathy. — A  variety  of  homoeopathy,  which  treated  "Hke  with  Uke" 
(mqualia  cequalihus  curantur),  e.g.,  the  use  of  roasted  proglottides  against 
tape-worms  and  the  administration  of  powdered  pieces  of  carcinoma  in  the 
treatment  of  carcinoma.  The  preparations  of  the  modern  organotherapy 
(thyroid  gland  against  goitre,  prostate  against  diseases  of  that  gland, 
ovaries  in  ovarian  diseases,  spermatozoa  in  impotence)  and  also  vaccination 
(Jennerization)  show  a  close  relation  to  the  old  isopathy. 

Mesmerism. — Mesmer,  the  originator  of  mesmerism  or  the  theory  of 
animal  magnetism,  was  a  physician  in  Vienna  and  Paris  (1734  to  1815).  He 
claimed  to  be  able  to  cure  disease  by  touch  and  stroking,  through  a  "magnetic 
force"  that  passed  from  him  to  the  patient.  Mesmer  was  the  forerunner,  on 
the  one  hand,  of  the  fraudulent  spiritualism,  and,  on  the  other,  of  hypnotism 
(suggestion),  which  in  recent  times  has  become  an  important  therapeutic 
factor  for  man. 

8.  THE  CELLULAR  PATHOLOGY  OF  VIRCHOW 

Definition  of  Cellular  Pathology. — According  to  Virchow,  there 
are  no  general  or  universal  diseases.  On  the  contrary,  the  patholo- 
gist finds  in  every  diseased  body  a  considerable,  indeed,  as  a  rule, 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  organs  normal.  A  diseased  body,  in 
which  every  part  is  changed,  is  never  seen.  The  diseased  or  the 
inert  portion  includes  only  a  part  of  the  body.  The  question  that 
confronts  the  physician  is:  where  is  the  disease  (vhi  est  morbus)? 
and  he  must  be  able  in  every  case  to  point  out  the  location  of  the 
malady  in  the  body  (principle  of  localization) .  The  scientific  inves- 
tigation with  reference  to  the  situation  of  the  disease  (Sedes  morhi) 
is  extended  to  the  tissues  and  finally  to  the  cells  of  the  organs  which 
show  the  actual  areas  of  disease  (cellular  pathology). 

In  some  diseases,  especially  many  nervous  diseases  and  intoxi- 
cations, visible  anatomical  changes  are  not  present  in  the  organs  or 
cells.  Nevertheless,  the  localization  of  the  disease  in  such  cases 
must  be  established  upon  a  physiological  or  chemical  basis,  even  in 
the  absence  of  anatomical  alterations  which  can  be  demonstrated 
by  the  usual  methods. 


22  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

As  a  basis  for  treatment,  Virchow's  theory  requires  that  medi- 
cines must  exert  a  local  action  upon  the  diseased  organ  or  its  cells 
(cellular  therapy,  localized  therapy). 

9.  THE  SERUM  THERAPY  OF  VON  BEHRING 

Definition  of  Serum  Therapy. — The  etiological  investigation  of 
the  infectious  diseases  begun  by  Pasteur  and  Koch  resulted  in  an 
etiological  therapy,  which  was  first  used  by  Lister  in  surgery  (anti- 
septic treatment  of  wounds).  This  etiological  principle  was  intro- 
duced in  internal  medicine  especially  by  von  Behring.  His  system, 
because  of  its  specific,  pronounced  humoral  pathological  character, 
is  the  direct  opposite  of  the  cellular  pathology  theory.  According 
to  von  Behring,  in  the  course  of  infectious  diseases  in  the  animal  or 
human  body  chemical  bodies  are  formed,  especially  in  the  blood- 
serum,  which  can  be  employed  not  only  as  protectives  but  also  as 
curative  agents  against  these  diseases.  The  so-called  antitoxins 
are  specific  antidotes  to  the  poisons  (toxins)  and  bacteria  of  these 
diseases;  some  neutralize  chemically  the  poisons  formed  by  the 
pathogenic  bacteria  (antitoxic  action),  others  destroy  the  patho- 
genic organisms  (bacteriolytic  action).  They  form  the  foundation 
of  the  modern  serum  therapy  or  isotherapy.  Recently,  isotherapy 
has  developed  in  two  different  directions,  which  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished as  isotherapeutic  and  homoeotherapeutic  principles 
in  the  restricted  sense.  Isotherapy  uses  the  so-called  isobodies  for 
immunization,  i.e.,  the  same  agent  which  causes  the  disease  to 
be  combated:  the  bacteria  themselves.  It  includes  Jenner's 
method  of  vaccination  against  smallpox,  Pasteur's  system  of 
anthrax  vaccination,  and  von  Behring's  protective  vaccination 
against  tuberculosis.  Homoeotherapy  does  not  use  the  living  or 
killed  organisms,  but  the  toxins  or  antibodies  produced  by  them, 
and  may  therefore  be  called  isotoxic  therapy.  To  this  division 
belong  von  Behring's  diphtheria  serum,  tuberculin  and  mallein, 
tetanus,  swine  erysipelas  and  hog  cholera  serum,  etc.  For  more 
extensive  details  of  serum  therapy  see  the  chapter  on  immunity 
and  vaccination. 


HISTORY  OF  THERAPEUTICS  23 

10.  THE  CHEMOTHERAPY  OF  EHRLICH 

Definition  of  Chemotherapy. — Formerly,  the  pharmacology  of 
medicines  was  tested  only  on  healthy  animals,  and  only  drugs  which 
produced  symptomatic  effects  were  included  in  the  tests.  Medi- 
cines which  act  specifically  were  tested  rarely  (quinine  against 
malaria,  mercury  and  iodine  against  syphilis).  The  new  experi- 
mental therapeutics  produces  certain  infectious  diseases  artificially 
in  experimental  animals  and  studies  the  action  of  curative  agents 
upon  these  diseased  animals.  Specific  medicines  are  also  produced 
synthetically  for  use  in  the  treatment  of  certain  infectious  diseases. 

Ehrlich  has  shown  experimentally  that  the  specific  relations  of 
the  curative  agent  to  different  parts  of  the  body,  its  so-called  tropic 
properties,  may  be  very  different.  A  distinction  must  be  made 
between  the  organotropic  action,  i.e.,  the  relation  to  certain  organs 
(neurotropic  action,  etc.),  and  the  parasitotropic  action,  which  is 
exerted  not  upon  the  animal  body  itself  but  upon  the  parasites 
present  in  the  body.  In  serum  therapy,  products  of  the  body  act 
as  protective  agents  in  a  purely  parasitotropic  manner  and  without 
any  organotropic  effect.  Since  the  body  and  its  cells  are  not  influ- 
enced by  these  protective  substances,  serum  therapy  excels  any 
other  method  of  treatment  in  those  cases  to  which  it  is  applicable. 
But  serum  therapy  cannot  be  employed  in  some  of  the  infectious 
diseases,  e.g.,  in  malaria,  trypanosomiasis,  and  spirillosis.  In  such 
cases,  chemical  antiparasitic  remedies  must  be  used  (chemotherapy 
instead  of  serum  therapy).  These  chemical  substances,  however, 
are  mostly  poisons,  which  are  not  only  harmful  to  the  parasites 
but  also  to  the  organism  (parasitotropic  and  organotropic  action). 
In  chemotherapy,  only  such  medicines  can  be  used  as  will  kill  the 
parasites  without  doing  any  considerable  harm  to  the  body.  Cor- 
rosive sublimate,  carbolic  acid,  and  arsenic  are  not  suitable  on 
account  of  their  strong  organotropic  action.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  extremely  poisonous  organotropic  action  of  arsenic  can  be  re- 
duced by  certain  synthetical  combinations  and  the  parasitotropic 
action  relatively  increased.  The  first  of  these  synthetic,  chemo- 
therapeutic,  arsenical  preparations  were  atoxyl  (sodium  arsanil- 


24         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

icum),  an  amino  derivate  of  phenyl  arsin,  an  organically  com- 
bined arsenious  acid,  and  arsacetin,  an  acetyl  compound  of  atoxyl. 
The  knowledge  that  only  the  trivalent  arsenic  group  exerts  a 
poisonous  effect  upon  the  cells  of  the  body  led  by  degrees  to  S3m- 
thesis  of  arsenophenylglycin  and  salvarsan,  organic  arsenical  prep- 
arations with  a  predominant,  parasitotropic,  specific  action  against 
syphilis  and  spirillosis.  A  remedy  with  a  similar  action  against 
trypanosomes  is  trypanred.  The  complete  and  immediate  sterili- 
zation of  the  organism  with  parasitotropic  chemical  substances  is 
termed  by  Ehrlich  therapia  sterilisans  magna. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  DISEASES  OF  THE 
ORGANS  OF  DIGESTION 

I.  General  Thera-peutics  op  the  Diseases  of  the  Stomach 

Pathology. — The  diseases  of  the  organs  of  digestion  in  our 
domestic  animals  are  more  varied  and  therefore  more  difficult  to 
treat  than  those  of  man,  especially  the  diseases  of  the  stomach. 
While  gastric  ulcers  and  carcinoma  of  the  stomach  are  generally 
rare  in  animals  and  the  nervous  dyspepsia  so  frequent  in  man  prob- 
ably does  not  occur  at  all,  the  therapeutics  of  stomach  diseases  in 
veterinary  medicine  is  very  complicated  because  the  anatomical 
arrangement  of  the  stomach  is  different  in  the  several  species  of 
animals.  The  ruminants,  especially,  with  their  peculiar  gastric 
apparatus,  are  in  a  separate  class  from  the  animals  with  a  single 
stomach.  Among  the  latter  there  exists  again  a  considerable  dif- 
ference between  the  gastric  digestion  of  theherbivora  (horse),  car- 
nivora  (dog,  cat),  and  omnivora  (swine).  Other  peculiarities  are 
observed  in  the  gastric  apparatus  of  fowl. 

The  most  important  and  the  most  frequent  diseases  of  the 
stomach  in  animals  are  those  occurring  in  connection  with  feeding 
(absolute  and  relative  overfeeding,  impaction  of  the  rumen,  acute 
tympanites,  spoiled  feed).  The  therapeutics  is  therefore  first  of  all 
prophylactic  (diet).  In  most  cases  the  anatomical  changes  are 
confined  to  the  mucous  membrane  (acute  and  chronic  gastric 
catarrh,  gastritis).  However,  in  cattle  all  three  layers  of  the 
stomach  wall  are  very  frequently  affected  (traumatic  gastritis) .  In 
some  animal  species,  parasitic  diseases  of  the  stomach  are  of  impor- 
tance (stomach-worm  disease).  Poisons  also  are  not  infrequently 
the  cause  of  stomach  diseases  (irritants  and  irritant  narcotic  poi- 
sons). The  stomach  is  also  very  often  affected  secondarily  in 
general  infectious  and  constitutional  diseases. 

Physiology. — The  physiological  processes  concerned  in  gastric 
digestion  are  partly  mechanical  and  partly  chemical.     Therefore, 

25 


26  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

the  therapeutics  of  diseases  of  the  stomach  will  vary  according  to 
whether  the  disturbance  of  digestion  originates  in  the  muscular 
action  and  innervation  of  the  stomach  wail,  in  the  gland  secretions 
and  chemical  properties  of  the  gastric  juice,  or  in  decomposition  of 
the  stomach  contents.  Accordingly,  treatment  may  be  required 
for  the  muscles,  the  glands,  or  the  contents.  From  a  therapeutic 
standpoint,  the  following  physiological  facts  are  of  importance: 

1.  Mechanism  of  the  Stomach. — In  the  horse,  as  well  as  in 
the  other  domestic  animals  with  a  single  stomach  (dog,  hog,  cat), 
the  pylorus  and  cardia  close  immediately  after  a  meal,  and  remain 
closed  for  a  time.  Then,  the  muscular  layer  in  the  stomach  wall 
begins  to  contract,  the  pylorus  is  opened  simultaneously,  and  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  are  gradually  emptied  into  the  intestines. 
A  part  of  the  food  and  water  ingested  at  this  time,  likewise  of  any 
medicines  administered,  pass  directly  into  the  intestines  without 
detention  in  the  stomach.  This  explains  why  medicines  given  by 
the  mouth  are  sometimes  surprisingly  prompt  in  their  action 
(cathartics,  acetanilid,  anthelmintics) .  The  opening  of  the  pylorus 
appears  to  be  caused  reflexly  by  the  stimulant  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  secreted  and  collecting  in  large  amount.  In  addition,  stimuli 
originating  in  the  duodenum  also  operate  to  empty  the  stomach. 
In  a  similar  way,  other  stimulants  (alcohol,  veratrum,  oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  spices)  act  reflexly  through  the  intestines  as  well  as  the 
stomach  and  accelerate  the  opening  of  the  pylorus  and  the  empty- 
ing of  the  stomach. 

The  normal  period  of  retention  of  food  in  the  stomach  differs 
greatly  with  the  kind  of  food,  the  method  of  feeding  and  the  ani- 
mal species,  as  well  as  with  the  individual,  in  horses,  after  a 
small  meal  of  oats,  the  passage  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  into 
the  intestines  begins  in  2  to  3  hours  and  continues  for  more  than  12 
hours.  Drinking  water  during  or  immediately  after  eating  hastens 
the  passage  of  the  material  in  the  stomach  into  the  intestines. 
Water  alone  or  fluid  medicines,  on  the  contrary,  pass  through  the 
stomach  of  the  horse  very  quickly;  part  in  a  few  minutes.  Exer- 
cise, especially  trotting,  retards  the  emptying  of  the  stomach  of  the 
horse. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  27 

In  ruminants  (cattle,  sheep,  goats),  the  mechanism  of  the 
stomach  is  especially  complicated.  Solid  food  and  medicines  pass 
into  the  rumen  and  reticulum  and  often  remain,  especially  in  the 
rumen,  several  days.  Medicines  should  therefore  not  be  admin- 
istered to  cattle  in  solid  form  if  a  prompt  effect  is  desired.  On  the 
other  hand,  fluids  or  fluid  medicines  pass  in  part  directly  through 
the  omasum  and  abomasum  into  the  intestines,  where  they  are 
rapidly  absorbed  and  act  promptly;  the  greater  part,  it  is  true, 
passes  into  the  reticulum  and  thence  into  the  rumen.  Rumination 
results  from  the  muscular  activity  of  the  rumen  and  reticulum  and 
the  pressure  of  the  inferior  abdominal  muscles.  The  necessary 
conditions  for  the  occurrence  of  rumination  are  a  medium-full 
rumen  and  a  certain  amount  of  fluid  in  the  rumen  and  reticulum. 
When  the  rumen  is  over-full  or  empty,  or  when  the  contents  are  dry, 
rumination  ceases.  The  correction  of  these  defects,  especially  sup- 
plying water  when  the  contents  of  the  rumen  are  dry,  is  of  great 
therapeutic  importance  in  disturbances  of  digestion.  For  the  same 
reason,  evacuating  medicines  which  also  stimulate  gland  secretions 
(arecoline,  pilocarpine)  are  to  be  preferred  to  the  mere  muscle 
stimulants  (eserine,  barium  chloride)  in  the  treatment  of  impaction 
of  the  rumen. 

The  innervation  of  the  stomach  consists  of  the  vagus  and  the 
sympathetic  nerves  and  the  automatic  gastric  centres — one  each 
for  opening  and  for  closing  the  pylorus  and  the  cardia.  The  motor 
centre  (vagus)  is  situated  in  the  corpora  quadrigemina;  the  inhibi- 
tory centre  (sjnnpathetic)  in  the  spinal  cord.  Contraction  of  the 
stomach  wall  may  be  produced  by  stimulation  of  the  vagus  nerve, 
or  reflexly  by  stimulation  of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane  (stimu- 
lant stomachics).  The  secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  influenced  by 
the  vagus. 

2.  Chemistry  of  Gastric  Digestion. — The  principal  con- 
stituents of  the  gastric  juice  are  hydrochloric  acid,  secreted  by  the 
glands  of  the  fundus,  and  pepsin,  secreted  by  the  glands  of  the 
fundus  and  of  the  pylorus.  Other  ferments,  rennet,  a  fat-splitting 
ferment,  and  a  lactic  acid  ferment,  are  also  present  in  the  stomach. 
The  function  of  the  gastric  juice  is  a  double  one.     Of  first  impor- 


28  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tance  is  the  antiseptic  and  antizymotic  action  of  the  hydrochloric 
acid.  In  consequence  of  the  presence  of  this  substance  the  gastric 
juice  is  a  natural  protective  agent  against  abnormal  fermentative 
and  putrefactive  processes,  and  likewise  against  pathogenic  bac- 
teria. These  facts  are  of  the  greatest  therapeutic  importance 
(prophylactic,  causal,  radical  treatment  of  disease).  It  is  also 
worthy  of  note  that  the  antiseptic  protective  action  of  hydrochloric 
acid  may  be  obtained  from  other  acids,  as  lactic,  acetic  and  phos- 
phoric. The  proteol37tic  or  peptonizing  action  of  the  gastric  juice, 
or  of  the  pepsin,  is  only  of  secondary  consideration  therapeutically. 
Moreover,  the  digestion  of  proteids  is  not  an  exclusive  physiological 
function  of  the  stomach,  but  can  be  entirely  accomplished  by  the 
pancreatic  ferment  (trypsin)  and  in  part  by  the  enzyme  of  the  intes- 
tinal juice  (erepsin).  The  proteolytic  action  of  pepsin  in  the 
stomach  occurs  only  when  the  contents  are  acid  (hydrochloric, 
lactic,  acetic  acid).  The  optimum  acidity  is  0.2  per  cent.  If  the 
acidity  is  less  than  0.1  per  cent,  or  more  than  0.6  per  cent,  peptoni- 
zation is  inhibited.  Accordingly,  the  average  therapeutic  dose  of 
hydrochloric  acid  for  the  horse  is  15  grams  [one-half  ounce],  figuring 
the  volume  of  the  stomach  to  be  15  litres  [15  quarts].  Absorption 
is  relatively  slight  in  the  full  stomach,  especially  in  the  stomach  of 
the  horse  and  in  the  first  three  stomachs  of  ruminants,  and  is 
limited  to  fluids  or  dissolved  food  and  medicines.  It  is  more  rapid 
in  the  empty  stomach  of  the  fasting  animal,  especially  in  the 
stomach  of  dogs  and  in  the  abomasum  of  ruminants.  These  facts 
should  be  considered  in  administering  medicines.  On  the  other 
hand,  of  no  special  therapeutic  importance  are  the  different  periods 
of  gastric  digestion  in  the  horse  (proteolytic  pepsin  digestion,  amyl- 
oljrtic  action  of  the  saliva,  mixed  digestion)  or  the  fact  that  in 
ruminants  only  maceration  (rumen)  and  amylolytic  (saliva)  diges- 
tion occurs  in  the  first  three  stomachs  and  proteolytic  digestion  in 
the  fourth.  More  important  is  the  fact  that  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  are  arranged  in  layers  and  that  no  mixing  takes  place. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — Diseases  of  the  stomach  may  be 
treated  in  several  different  ways.  The  methods  most  used  are  the 
dietetic,  the  medical,  the  mechanical,  and  the  operative. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  29 

1.  DIETETIC  TREATMENT 

Since  the  greater  portion  of  the  diseases  of  the  stomach  in  the 
domestic  animals  is  due  to  abnormal  properties  in  the  food  or  to 
excessive  feeding,  the  most  important  task  of  the  veterinarian  is  the 
regulation  of  the  diet.  Sound,  easily  digested  food,  given  in  small 
quantity  and  at  frequent  intervals,  is  a  primary  requisite — green 
fodder,  hay,  carrots,  molasses,  etc.,  for  herbivora;  milk,  raw  meat, 
mucilaginous  soups  for  dogs.  In  some  cases,  especially  in  colic  of 
the  horse,  impaction  of  the  rmnenin  cattle  and  acute  gastric  catarrh 
in  the  dog,  it  is  advisable  to  withhold  food  entirely.  Dogs  must  be 
deprived  of  water  also  sometimes;  in  morbid  conditions  of  the 
stomach  these  animals  drink  large  quantities  of  water  and  per- 
sistent vomiting  results.  These  methods,  by  resting  the  affected 
parts,  bring  about  complete  recovery  in  many  cases.  Work  ani- 
mals should  have  bodily  rest  in  addition,  because  severe  exertion 
or  exercise  reduces  or  entirely  suppresses  gastric  digestion. 

2.  MEDICINES.     (STOMACH  REMEDIES.     STOMACHICS) 

Synonyms:  Digestives  in  a  restricted  sense,  peptics,  ruminatorics, 
anti-dyspeptics,  antemetics,  antacids,  neutralizants,  absorbents,  suppletives; 
stimulants  to  the  appetite,  improvers  of  the  digestion,  acid-combating, 
stimulants  to  rumination. 

Classification. — According  to  their  action  and  composition,  the 
stomachics  are  divided  into  the  following  groups: 

(a)  Physiological  Stomachics. — These  are  normally  con- 
tained in  the  gastric  juice  and  when  decreased  in  quantity  or  absent 
are  supplied  artificially.  They  are:  acidum  hydrochloricum  and 
pepsinum.  It  is  best  to  administer  both  together,  as  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  determine  in  animals  if  one  or  the  other  is  absent.  They 
can  be  used  in  the  treatment  of  all  diseases  of  the  stomach  and  in 
all  disturbances  of  digestion  in  the  course  of  febrile  and  general  dis- 
eases with  the  exception  of  the  rarely  occurring  gastric  ulcers 
(calves).  In  veterinary  practice  hydrochloric  acid  is  most  com- 
monly used. 

The  dose  of  hydrochloric  acid  for  cattle  is  15-30,  5ss  to  5j; 
horses,  10-20,  5ijss  to  5v;  calves,  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  1-2, 


30  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

TT^xv  to  xxx;  dogs,  cats  and  fowl,  0.1-0.5,  tt^j  to  vij.  Of  pepsin, 
the  dose  for  horses  is  5-10,  5j  to  oijss;  dogs,  0.1-1,  grs.  jss  to  xv. 
Phosphoric  acid  or  lactic  acid  may  be  used  in  place  of  hydrochloric 
acid. 

(b)  Saline  Stomachics  stimulate  the  secretion  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  dissolve  collections  of  mucus  upon  the  gastric  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  at  the  same  time  combat  fermentation.  The  most 
important  are  sodii  chloridum,  sodii  bicarbonas,  sodii  sulphas  and 
*Carlsbad  salts.^  They  are  the  best  remedies  for  chronic  gastric 
catarrh. 

The  dose  of  sodium  chloride,  sodium  bicarbonate,  sodium  sul- 
phate and  Carlsbad  salts  for  cattle  is  50-100,  5  jss  to  iij;  horses, 
25-50,  3vj  to  xij;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  grs.  xxx  to  5j;  dogs,  1-2, 
grs.  XV  to  xxx. 

(c)  Bitter  Stomachics  (Amara). — In  disturbances  of  gastric 
digestion  these  improve  the  appetite,  increase  the  secretion  of 
gastric  juice,  stimulate  reflexly  the  contraction  of  the  stomach  wall 
and  prevent  or  check  fermentation.  The  alleged  negative  results 
obtained  in  experiments  with  bitter  stomachics  on  healthy  indi- 
viduals and  outside  of  the  animal  body  do  not  disprove  their  favor- 
able effect  upon  disturbances  of  digestion.  Gentiana  and  aloe  are 
the  most  important  of  those  used  in  veterinary  medicine.  Others 
are:  *condurango,  cinchona,  *absinthium,  taraxacum,  calumba, 
*centaury,  *menyanthes,  *centaurea,  quassia,  *cetraria,  *achillea, 
[nux  vomica],  and  strychnina.  As  a  rule,  the  amara  are  adminis- 
tered in  small  doses. 

The  dose  of  aloes  as  a  stomachic  for  cattle  is  5-10,  3j  to  i jss; 
horses,  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  grs.  xxx  to  3j;  dogs  0.1-0.5,  grs.  jss  to 
vij.  Of  gentian,  absinthe  and  the  other  vegetable  amara,  except 
nux  vomica  and  strychnine,  the  dose  for  cattle  is  25-50,  5  vj  to  xij ; 
horses,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  grs.  xxx  to  3j. 
The  tinctures  of  these  drugs  are  usually  administered  to  dogs,  the 

*  [Not  official  in  the  U.  S.J 

^  [The  formula  for  artificial  Carlsbad  salts,  Sal  Carolinum  factitium,  is  as 
follows:  Sodium  sulphate  22  parts,  sodium  bicarbonate  18  parts,  sodium 
chloride  9  parts,  and  potassium  sulphate  1  part.l 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  31 

dose  being  5  to  10  drops.  Strychnine  is  also  administered  [in  Ger- 
many] in  the  form  of  the  tincture  to  dogs,  calves,  and  lambs.  [In 
the  United  States,  where  the  tincture  of  strychnine  is  not  official, 
tinctura  nucis  vomicae  is  prescribed  as  a  bitter  stomachic  in  the 
following  doses:  for  horses  and  cattle,  4-25,  5i  to  vj;  dogs,  0.3-1, 
TTjjv  to  XV.]  Oxgall,  fel  bovis,  is  obsolete;  it  is  also  harmful,  as  it 
precipitates  pepsin.  Condurango  is  alleged  to  be  a  specific  for 
gastric  carcinoma. 

In  the  old  therapeutics  there  were  superfluous  subclasses  of  the 
bitter  stomachics:  Amara  vera  or  pura  (gentian),  A.  mucilag- 
inosa  (cetraria),  A.  aromatica  (absinthe),  A.  salina  (magnesium 
sulphate),  A.  adstringentia  (cinchona),  A.  tetanica  (strychnine), 
A.  cathartica  (aloe). 

(d)  Aromatic  Stomachics. — These  stimulate  the  activity  of 
the  glands  of  digestion,  the  appetite  and  the  peristalsis  of  the 
stomach.  To  this  class  belong  rheum,  calamus,  anisum,  foenic- 
ulum,  carum  and  *fructis  juniperi;  also  sinapis  alba  and  nigra, 
*angelica,  Valeriana  and  aurantii  amari  cortex. 

The  dose  of  rhubarb  as  a  stomachic  for  horses  and  cattle  is 
10-25,  Sijss  to  vj.  Of  the  other  aromatics  mentioned,  the  dose 
for  cattle  is  25-50,  5vj  to  xii;  horses,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  sheep 
and  goats,  2-5,  grs.  xxx  to  5j;  dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 
Rhubarb  is  given  to  dogs  in  the  form  of  the  tincture,  the  dose 
being  4,  5  j. 

(e)  Stimulant  Stomachics. — The  most  important  of  these  is 
alcohol,  which  is  also  antiseptic;  in  addition,  the  group  includes  the 
pungent  spices:  piper  and  capsicum,  likewise  the  new  remedy, 
*orexin.  All  these  substances  cause  hyperemia  of  the  gastric 
mucous  membrane,  abundant  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  increased 
peristalsis  and  a  more  rapid  emptying  of  the  stomach.  They  are 
contra-indicated  in  severe  affections  of  the  stomach. 

The  dose  of  alcohol  as  a  stomachic  for  horses  and  cattle  is  25-50, 
5vj  to  xij;  dogs,  2-5,  tjjixxx  to  5j.  The  dose  of  the  peppers  for 
cattle  is  10-20,  5ijss  to  v;  horses,  5-10,  5  j  to  ijss;  swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv 
to  xxx;  dogs,  0.1-0.2,  gr.  j  to  iij. 

(f)  Disinfectant  Stomachics. — These  are  used  in  fermenta- 


32  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tion  and  decomposition  of  the  stomach  contents,  also  in  infectious 
gastric  catarrh  and  against  parasites  (stomach  worms,  larvae  of  the 
bot  fly)/  To  this  class  belong  acidum  hydrochloricum,  creolin, 
creosotum,  naphthalenum,  bismuthi  subnitras,  quinina,  iodum, 
oleum  terebinthinae  and  carbonei  disulphidum. 

Of  these,  the  most  important  in  veterinary  medicine  are  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  creolin.  Both  may  be  given  to  cattle  and  horses 
in  doses  of  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  sheep  and  goats,  0.5-1,  ir^vij  to 
xv;  dogs,  0.1-1,  TTijj  to  xv;  fowl,  0.1-0.25,  ttjj  to  iij.  The 
dose  of  carbon  disulphide  (bot  fly  larvse)  for  horses  is  10,  5ijss, 
repeated  four  times  at  intervals  of  one  hour. 

(g)  Narcotic  Stomachics  (Antemetics)  are  prescribed  in 
painful  affections  of  the  stomach  and  in  persistent  vomiting.  The 
sedative  remedies  are  opii  pulvis,  cocainae  hydrochloridum  and 
menthol. 

Opium  is  most  frequently  used.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  5- 
25,  5j  to  vj;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  j  to  vij.  [Of  the  tinctura  opii, 
the  dose  for  horses  and  cattle  is  30-60,  3j  to  ij;  dogs,  0.2-2, 
TTjjiij  to  XXX.] 

(h)  Antacids  (Acid-neutralizing  Stomachics,  Absorbents). 
— These  combine  with  abnormal  acids  or  an  excess  of  normal  acids 
in  the  stomach  and  neutralize  excessive  amounts  of  hydrochloric 
and  lactic  acids  or  abnormal  acids  (fatty  acids,  carbonic  acid, 
poisonous  acids).  To  this  group  belong  sodii  bicarbonas,  potassii 
bicarbonas,  soap,  liquor  calcis,  calcii  carbonas  praecipitatus, 
*sodium,  *potassium,  magnesii  oxidum,  magnesii  carbonas,  aqua 
ammoniae  and  ammonii  carbonas. 

Soap  is  an  important  absorbent  for  carboHc  acid  especially; 
lime  water  for  oxalic  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  the  other  substances 
mentioned  above  for  hydrochloric,  lactic  and  the  fatty  acids,  etc. 
The  dose  is  ad  libitum  except  for  sodium,  potassium,  and  the  oxide 
and  carbonate  of  magnesia.  Of  the  latter,  the  dose  for  horses  and 
cattle  is  5-25,  5j  to  vj;  sheep  and  goats,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  dogs, 
0.2-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv. 

(i)  Ruminatorics. — The  drugs  that  stimulate  rumination  are 
emetics,  muscle  stimulants,  and  drastic  stimulants  of  the  gastric 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  33 

mucous  membrane.  Those  most  commonly  used  are  antimonii  et 
potassii  tartras,  veratrum,  ipecacuanha,  alcohol,  *veratrina,  areco- 
linae  hydrobromidtmi,  physostigminae  salicylas  or  sulphas  [eserine], 
*eseridin  tartras,  pilocarpinae  hydrochloridum  or  nitras,  oleum 
terebinthinae,  *tabacimi,  colchici  semen,  ammonii  carbonas  and 
aqua  ammoniae. 

In  cattle  practice,  the  most  important  ruminatorics  are  tartar 
emetic,  veratrum,  veratrin  and  arecoline.  Doses :  Tartar  emetic, 
for  cattle,  10-20,  Sijss  to  v.  Powdered  veratrum  or  the  tincture, 
for  cattle,  5-10,  3i  to  ijss;  sheep  and  goats,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  cattle,  25-50,  5vj  to  xij;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5, 
Tijxxx  to  3j-  Veratrin  and  eserine,  for  cattle,  0.1-0.2,  grs.  IJ^ 
to  3.     Arecoline,  for  cattle,  up  to  0.05,  gr.  J^. 

In  carnivora,  an  emetic  not  rarely  acts  as  a  good  stomachic. 

3.  MECHANICAL  TREATMENT 

In  ruminants,  the  rumen  is  situated  in  the  left  flank  and  is  in 
contact  with  the  abdominal  wall  when  greatly  distended.  It  can 
therefore  be  very  easily  massaged.  Massage,  or  kneading,  of  the 
rumen  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  treatment  of  digestive 
disturbances  in  cattle,  especially  impaction  of  the  rumen,  acute 
tympanites  and  all  atonic  conditions  of  the  musculature  of  the 
rumen.  It  stimulates  reflexly  the  muscular  contractions  of  the 
rumen,  which  under  normal  conditions  occur  about  twice  a  minute. 
In  dogs,  the  stomach  when  full  also  lies  close  to  the  abdominal 
wall  and  can  also  be  massaged.  It  is  not  possible,  however,  to 
massage  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  because  even  when  full  it  can 
not  be  palpated  through  the  abdominal  wall. 

Of  the  other  mechanical  methods,  the  most  important  is  the 
introduction  of  the  oesophageal  sound  in  ruminants  and  of  the 
stomach  tube  in  horses  to  remove  gas  and  the  fluid  contents  of  the 
stomach.  Electrotherapy  and  hydrotherapy  are  not  usually  em- 
ployed on  animals.  The  emetics  also  act  in  a  mechanical  manner 
in  emptying  the  stomach  of  its  contents  (see  p.  34). 

[For  several  years,  American  veterinarians  have  been  using  soft 
rubber  tubes  to  remove  gas  from  the  stomach  of  horses  and  to 
3 


34  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

wash  out  the  stomach.  There  are  two  types  of  these  tubes:  one 
is  passed  through  the  mouth  and  the  other  is  introduced  into  the 
CEsophagus  by  way  of  the  inferior  meatus  of  one  of  the  nasal  cavi- 
ties, a  flexible  rattan  stilet  being  inserted  into  the  tube  before  it  is 
passed,  and  withdrawn  after  the  tube  is  in  position. 

In  the  small  animal  clinic  at  Copenhagen,  Prof.  Hansen  washes 
out  the  stomach  of  dogs,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  by  injecting  per  rectum  a  0.9  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium 
chloride  at  body  temperature,  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  being 
elevated.  After  2  to  3  Htres  are  injected  into  small  dogs  and  up 
to  9  litres  in  large  dogs,  the  fluid,  mixed  with  alimentary  matters,  is 
vomited.  The  injection  is  continued  until  the  fluid  is  vomited 
clear.  The  method  has  been  in  use  in  the  small  animal  clinic  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  for  the  last  two  years.  In  toxic, 
hemorrhagic,  and  catarrhal  enteritis  and  in  icterus  the  results  are 
very  satisfactory.] 

4.  OPERATIVE  TREATMENT 

In  acute  tympanites  of  ruminants  puncture  of  the  rumen  is  in 
most  cases  necessary  to  remove  the  gas.  The  rumen  may  at  the 
same  time  be  irrigated  with  water  or  fluid  medicines  introduced 
through  the  cannula.  Gastrotomy  is  resorted  to  to  remove  foreign 
bodies  from  the  stomach  of  dogs  (stones,  coins,  balls,  corks)  and 
cattle  (metallic  foreign  bodies  in  the  reticulum,  abnormal  collec- 
tions of  food  and  poisonous  plants  in  the  rumen).  Finally,  dis- 
eases of  the  stomach  may  be  treated  indirectly  by  operation,  as  by 
the  extraction  of  diseased  teeth  in  the  dog. 

II.  Emetics 
Synonyms:    Vomitives,  vomitories,  nauseosa,  nauseotics. 

Method  of  Action. — Vomition  results,  according  to  some,  from 
an  active,  primary  contraction  of  the  stomach;  according  to  others, 
from  the  passive  compression  of  the  stomach  by  the  convulsive 
contraction  of  the  inferior  abdominal  muscles  and  the  diaphragm. 
The  cardia  being  relaxed  at  the  same  time  and  the  pylorus  closed, 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  35 

the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  forced  upward  and  forward. 
Vomiting  is  under  the  control  of  the  centre  of  vomition  (a  paired 
centre  situated  in  the  region  of  the  calamus  scriptorius).  This 
centre  can  be  directly  stimulated  through  the  blood  and  indirectly 
by  stimulation  of  peripheral  parts  of  the  body,  especially  the 
stomach.  Emetics  which  can  cause  vomiting  by  acting  through 
the  blood  and  stimulating  the  vomiting  centre  without  necessarily 
coming  in  contact  with  the  stomach  are  called  central  or  general 
emetics.  Apomorphine  is  a  good  example  of  this  variety.  Those 
that  cause  vomiting  reflexly  by  irritating  the  gastric  mucous  mem- 
brane are  called  local  or  topical  emetics.  Examples  are  copper 
sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  tartar  emetic.  Some  emetics  operate  both 
ways,  e.g.,  emetin.  Pathology  teaches  that  vomiting  may  also  be 
caused  reflexly  by  the  irritation  of  numerous  peripheral  parts  out- 
side of  the  stomach,  as  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  the  throat,  oesophagus,  intestines,  uterus,  pelvis  of  the 
kidney  and  gall  ducts,  and  the  terminations  of  the  auricular  branch 
of  the  vagus  (otorrhoea).  Centric  vomiting  may  also  occur  in  dif- 
ferent diseases  of  the  brain  and  in  uraemia.  Finally,  stimuli  applied 
to  centres  related  to  the  centre  of  vomition  appear  to  pass  readily 
over  the  latter.  Hydrocyanic  acid,  which  stimulates  the  respira- 
tory centre,  may  exert  a  similar  action  upon  the  centre  of  vomition. 
The  drugs  that  have  a  specific  stimulant  effect  upon  the  vagus 
centre  (digitalis,  squill,  strophanthus)  may  also  stimulate  the 
vomiting  centre. 

The  effects  of  vomiting  upon  the  stomach  and  other  organs  of 
the  body  are  very  extensive.  In  the  first  place,  the  stomach, 
oesophagus,  pharynx  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  buccal  cavity  are 
emptied.  The  peristaltic  movement  of  the  stomach  wall  is 
increased  through  the  contraction  of  the  gastric  musculature. 
Intestinal  peristalsis  is  also  increased,  being  stimulated  reflexly  by 
the  contraction  of  the  stomach.  Emetics  which  exert  an  espe- 
cially pronounced  action  upon  the  intestines  are  called  emeto- 
cathartics.  A  further  effect  of  vomiting  is  the  reflex  stimulation 
of  the  secretion  of  the  stomach  and  intestinal  juices  and  of  the 
bile.     The  contraction  of  the  inferior  abdominal  muscles  exerts 


36  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

compression  upon  all  of  the  organs  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  elimination  of  bile  and  pancreatic  secretion 
is  accelerated  and  a  certain  amount  of  blood  is  expressed  out  of 
the  large  vessels  and  organs  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen, 
these  organs  becoming  anaemic  while  the  neighboring  organs 
become  hypersemic.  During  vomiting  the  pulse  and  respiration 
are  accelerated,  metabolism  is  increased,  and  there  is  also  at  the 
same  time  increased  activity  of  the  sweat  glands  and  the  mucous 
glands  of  the  bronchial  membrane.  The  forced  expiration  occur- 
ring during  vomiting  increases  the  expectoration  of  secretions  from 
the  bronchi  and  lungs.  The  nervous  system  in  general  is  stimu- 
lated, but  it  is  questionable  if  the  irritability  of  the  muscles  is 
decreased.  Finally,  the  nausea  that  precedes  vomiting  has  an 
alterative  effect  upon  the  gastric  nerves.  Emetics  which  pro- 
duce a  pronounced  and  long-continued  nausea  are  called  nauseat- 
ing emetics  (apomorphine). 

Uses. — The  diverse  and  wide-spread  effects  of  emetics  demon- 
strate that  the  use  of  emetics  has  unwisely  been  discredited.  In 
veterinary  medicine,  they  are  indispensable  in  the  treatment  of 
certain  diseases;  in  other  diseases  practical  experience,  in  confirma- 
tion of  the  aforementioned  physiological  effects,  has  shown  that 
they  are  of  decided  value.  The  most  important  indications  for  the 
employment  of  emetics  are  the  following: 

1.  The  removal  of  excessive  quantities  of  food,  foreign  bodies, 
and  poisons  from  the  stomach  and  oesophagus. 

2.  To  empty  the  stomach  of  decomposing  or  fermenting  food, 
and  of  collections  of  mucus  in  gastric  catarrh. 

3.  Licking-disease  of  cattle  and  wool-eating  of  sheep  are  most 
promptly  cured  by  emetics.  This  is  also  true  of  other  forms  of 
depraved  appetite  (eating  of  sand  by  horses). 

4.  The  removal  of  stasis  of  bile  (icterus). 

5.  The  removal  of  infectious  material  from  the  stomach 
in  infectious  diseases.  For  example,  in  the  early  stages  of 
canine  distemper  and  erysipelas  of  swine  an  emetic  is  indicated. 
In  such  cases  emetics  act  as  alteratives  (so-called  abortive 
treatment). 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  37 

6.  Expectoration  of  inflammatory  products  from  the  respiratory 
tract,  especially  in  young  dogs  affected  with  distemper. 

7.  The  removal  of  blood  stasis  in  the  liver  and  other  organs  in 
the  posterior  part  of  the  body. 

Emetics  are  contraindicated  in  very  weak  animals,  gastric 
ulcers,  inflammation  of  the  stomach,  advanced  pregnancy,  hernise 
and  certain  diseases  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels  (aneurism). 

Emetics. — 1.  Apomorphinae  hydrochloridum.  This  is  the  best 
emetic  for  dogs.  The  dose  subcutaneously  is  0.002-0.01,  gr. 
1/40  to  1/8.  As  a  specific  against  licking-disease  in  cattle  and 
wool-eating  in  sheep,  it  is  used  subcutaneously  in  doses  of  0.1-0.2, 
grs.  jss  to  iij.  Cats  as  a  rule  require  ten  to  twenty  times  the  dose 
for  the  dog.  Apomorphine  usually  does  not  cause  vomiting  in 
swine. 

2.  Veratrina.  The  most  important  emetic  for  swine.  Dose: 
0.02-0.03,  gr.  3^  to  1/3,  in  alcohol,  subcutaneously.  In  place  of 
veratrin  subcutaneously,  veratrum  may  be  administered  per  os  or 
per  rectum.  Dose  for  swine,  0.5-2,  grs.  viij  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.05-0.2, 
grs.  %  to  iij. 

3.  Ipecacuanha.  An  emetic  for  cats,  dogs,  and  swine.  Dose 
for  dogs  and  swine,  1-3,  grs.  xv  to  xlv;  cats,  0.25-0.75,  grs.  iij  to  x. 
[Vinum  ipecacuanhas,  on  account  of  its  stimulating  properties,  is  a 
valuable  emetic  in  canine  and  feline  practice.  Dose  for  dogs,  1-4, 
iTjjxv  to  5j;  cats,  one-half  the  quantity.] 

4.  Antimonii  et  potassii  tartras.  Tartar  emetic,  an  emeto- 
cathartic;  therefore  suitable  only  for  robust  animals  (swine,  large 
dogs).  Dose  for  swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.1  to  0.3,  grs. 
jss  to  jv.  Vinum  antimonii  is  also  useful  and  is  given  to  dogs  in 
teaspoonful  to  tablespoonful  doses. 

5.  Cupri  sulphas.  A  specific  emetic  in  phosphorus  poisoning. 
It  unites  with  the  phosphorus  to  form  phosphor-copper,  which  is 
not  poisonous.     Dose  for  dogs,  0.1-0.3,  grs.  jss  to  jv. 

Emetics  like  mustard,  table  salt,  ammonium  carbonate,  and 
zinc  sulphate,  which  were  formerly  much  used  by  the  laity,  are 
now  prescribed  only  in  emergency. 

For  antemetics,  see  the  chapter  on  stomachics. 


38  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

III.  General  Therapeutics  op  the  Diseases  of  the 
Intestines 

Pathology. — The  diseases  of  the  intestines  most  frequently 
requiring  treatment  are  acute  and  chronic  intestinal  catarrh,  very 
often  associated  with  gastric  catarrh;  constipation;  colic,  with  its 
numerous  anatomical  causes  (impaction,  displacements,  etc.);  the 
different  forms  of  enteritis,  and  helminthiasis  (tape  worms,  round 
worms).  More  rarely,  foreign  bodies  and  neoplasms  are  present 
in  the  intestines,  which  are  also  affected  secondarily  in  many  of  the 
infectious  diseases.  The  incurable  chronic  intestinal  catarrhs, 
which  are  especially  frequent  in  cattle  and  dogs,  and  some  cases  of 
chronic  gastric  catarrh  are  not  merely  a  superficial  disease  of  the 
epithelium  but  a  severe  parenchymatous  affection  of  the  intestinal 
glands,  accompanied  by  atrophy  of  the  latter  and  formation  of  new 
connective  tissue;  the  pathological  processes  being  analogous  to 
those  of  chronic  nephritis.  These  circumstances  explain  the 
fruitlessness  of  treatment. 

Physiology. — The  cause  of  the  normal  peristaltic  movements  of 
the  intestines  is  the  reflex  stimulation  of  the  intestinal  nerves  by 
the  intestinal  contents.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  automatic 
centres  in  the  intestinal  wall  (plexus  myentericus),  there  are  also 
constrictor  and  dilator  nerve  apparatuses.  The  accelerator  nerve 
is  the  vagus  (cranial);  the  inhibitory  nerve  is  the  splanchnic 
(spinal).  Stimulation  of  the  vagus  causes  intestinal  contraction. 
Stimulation  of  the  splanchnic  (morphine)  retards  or  inhibits  intes- 
tinal contraction;  paralysis  of  the  splanchnic  (atropine)  increases 
the  intestinal  movements.  The  average  time  required  for  food  to 
pass  through  the  digestive  tract  is  3  to  4  days  for  horses  and  cattle, 
sometimes  double  this  period  and  more  for  the  latter;  for  dogs 
12  to  15  hours;  swine  24  to  36  hours. 

The  reaction  of  the  contents  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  intes- 
tines is  acid,  because  of  the  presence  of  the  acid  from  the  stomach. 
The  small  intestines  are  therefore  relatively  poor  in  bacteria.  In 
the  large  intestines,  and  in  herbivora  even  in  the  ileum,  the  reac- 
tion is  alkaline  in  consequence  of  the  neutralization  of  the  gastric 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  39 

juice  by  the  bile,  pancreatic  juice  and  intestinal  secretions,  all  of 
which  are  alkaline.  Intestinal  digestion  takes  place  principally 
in  the  small  intestines.  In  the  large  intestines  a  further  digestion 
takes  place,  and  here  also  occur,  especially  in  the  caecum,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  resorption  of  the  fluid  and  dissolved  substances,  fermen- 
tative and  putrefactive  processes  (indol,  skatol,  phenol,  cresol, 
fatty  acids,  amido  acids,  ammonia,  carbon  dioxide,  hydrogen, 
hydrogen  sulphide,  and  other  products  of  the  decomposition  of 
albumin  and  cellulose).  In  contrast  with  the  small  intestines,  the 
large  intestines,  on  account  of  the  alkaline  reaction  and  the  ab- 
sence of  oxygen,  are  a  place  for  the  incubation  of  anaerobic  bacteria 
(colon  bacillus,  bacillus  putrificus — decomposers  of  albumin). 
The  bile  and  the  pancreatic  juice  are  the  most  important  of  the 
digestive  secretions,  the  intestinal  juice  possessing  only  a  slight 
amylol3rtic  and  at  times  a  proteolytic  action.  The  bile  possesses 
antitoxic  and  antiseptic  properties  (immunization  in  infectious 
diseases,  removal  of  poisons  from  the  blood).  It  also  prepares 
the  fats  for  absorption  in  the  intestines  and  operates  as  a  stim- 
ulant to  peristalsis  of  the  large  intestines.  The  pancreatic 
juice  contains  proteolytic  (trypsin),  amylolytic  and  fat-splitting 
ferments. 

In  regard  to  intestinal  absorption  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
nutrient  substances  in  solution  and  the  fats  are  absorbed  by  the 
activity  of  the  intestinal  epithelium  and  the  contraction  of  the 
villi,  assisted  by  the  amoeboid  functions  of  the  leucocytes  (phago- 
cytosis). The  water-soluble  substances  are  also  taken  up  by  dif- 
fusion. When  the  intestinal  epithelium  is  desquamated  over  a 
considerable  area,  as  in  catarrh,  or  when  the  intestinal  villi  are 
paralyzed,  as  in  inflammation,  then  absorption  is  distributed  or 
entirely  suppressed. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — The  diseased  intestine  may  be  influ- 
enced in  several  ways.  The  mucous  membrane  may  be  treated 
directly  with  demulcents,  narcotics,  astringents,  antiseptics  or 
stimulants.  The  glands  may  be  acted  upon  by  pilocarpine  or 
arecoline;  the  muscles  by  eserine  or  barium  chloride;  the  nerves  by 
morphine.     Treatment  of  the  intestinal  contents  is  also  very  impor- 


40  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tant  and  is  accomplished  by  dieting  and  by  the  administration  of 
cathartics,  intestinal  styptics,  disinfectants  and  anti-ferments. 
The  principal  therapeutic  methods  are  similar  to  those  used  in  the 
treatment  of  diseases  of  the  stomach,  namely:  dietetic,  medical 
(cathartics,  styptics),  mechanical  and  operative, 

1.  DIETETIC  TREATMENT 

Fasting,  or  a  diet  of  non-irritating,  easily  digested  food,  will 
serve,  more  than  anything  else,  to  alleviate  a  catarrhal  or  inflamed 
mucous  membrane.  Green  fodder,  bran,  or  linseed  meal  is  best 
for  horses;  raw  meat,  milk,  eggs,  and  mucilaginous  soups  for  dogs. 
When  catarrh  is  present  in  the  intestines,  the  stomach  is  fre- 
quently healthy  and  the  appetite  is  very  good.  This  must  be 
remembered  so  that  overfeeding  will  be  avoided.  Taking  a  large 
quantity  of  food  at  one  meal  is  not  to  be  permitted, 

2.  CATHARTICS.    LAXATIVES 

Synonyms:  Purgatives,  drastics,  lenitives,  eccoprotics,  aperients,  aperi- 
tives, evacuants,  peristaltics,  osmetics. 

Classification. — For  the  purposes  of  general  therapeutics  it  is 
best  to  divide  the  cathartics  into  three  groups  according  to  the 
intensity  of  their  action:  mild,  medium  and  strong.  Although 
these  different  degrees  of  action  may  be  obtained  with  the  same 
cathartic  by  simply  varying  the  dose,  and  although  the  intensity 
of  action  may  vary  with  the  species,  yet  for  practical  reasons  and 
because  it  affords  a  better  conception  of  the  large  number  of 
cathartics,  it  is  desirable  to  classify  these  drugs  in  the  three  fol- 
lowing groups: 

(a)  Drastics,  very  powerful  cathartics,  which  operate  on  the 
horse  in  doses  of  a  few  grams,  decigrams  and  even  centigrams. 
This  group  includes  arecoline,  eserine,  pilocarpine,  tartar  emetic, 
calomel,  podophyllum,  croton  oil,  gamboge,  jalap,  colocynth  and 
barium  chloride. 

(b)  Purgatives,  cathartics  of  medium  strength,  laxatives  in 
the  restricted  sense.  In  this  group  are  included  aloes  and  the  saline 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  41 

purgatives:  sodium  sulphate,  potassium  sulphate  and  magnesium 
sulphate;  also,  fructus  rhamni  catharticae,  frangula  and  cascara 
sagrada. 

(c)  Laxatives  or  Lenitives,  mild  cathartics,  which  must  be 
given  in  very  large  doses  and  most  of  which  do  not  operate  upon 
horses  and  cattle.  This  group  includes  castor  oil,  senna,  sulphur, 
manna,  tamarind,  syrup,  honey,  glycerin,  and  the  fixed  oils. 

Theories  Regarding  Catharsis. — The  question  of  how  and  in 
what  manner  catharsis  is  brought  about  after  the  administration 
of  a  cathartic  has  been  answered  in  many  different  ways.  A  num- 
ber of  theories  have  been  proposed  by  Liebig,  Buchheim,  Aubert, 
Voit,  Hay,  Brieger,  Radziejewski,  and  others.  From  these  we 
learn  that  catharsis  is  not  a  simple  process  but  a  very  complicated 
action  resulting  usually  from  several  factors  operating  together. 

(a)  According  to  Liebig,  the  neutral  salts  operate  principally 
in  a  purely  physical  manner,  i.e.,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
osmosis.  Water  passes  from  the  blood,  which  is  poor  in  salts, 
into  the  intestines,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  salt.  The 
"animal  membrane'^  separating  the  blood  from  the  intestinal  con- 
tents is  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane.  If  a  solution  of  Glauber's 
salt  or  epsom  salt  is  placed  in  an  isolated  loop  of  the  small  intestine 
the  latter  will  be  filled  to  distention  in  a  few  hours  with  a  clear 
yellow,  alkaline  fluid.  At  the  same  time  the  mucous  membrane 
will  retain  its  normal  pale  color.  The  fluid  which  passes  from  the 
blood  into  the  intestines  operates  as  a  stimulant  to  peristalsis  and 
diarrhoea  occurs. 

(b)  On  the  other  hand,  Buchheim  asserts  that  the  neutral  salts 
produce  catharsis  by  retarding  or  suppressing  absorption  of  intes- 
tinal fluids  in  consequence  of  their  slight  diffusibility.  The  more 
slowly  and  least  diffusible  salts,  sodium  sulphate,  potassium  sul- 
phate and  magnesium  sulphate,  therefore,  possess  a  cathartic 
action  in  contrast  with  the  rapidly  and  readily  diffusible  sodium 
chloride.  Other  cathartics,  especially  the  drastics,  probably  re- 
tard absorption  by  paralyzing  the  intestinal  epithelium  and  villi. 

(c)  Peristalsis  is  reflexly  stimulated  and  accelerated  through 
the  direct  stimulation  of  the  nerves  in  the  intestinal  mucous  mem- 


42  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

brane  by  most  of  the  cathartics,  including  calomel,  aloes,  rhubarb, 
sulphur  and  especially  the  neutral  salts.  The  latter  operate  in  at 
least  three  different  ways.  Proof  of  their  stimulant  action  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  very  dilute  solutions,  which  could  not  gener- 
ate an  osmotic  stream,  produce  diarrhoea.  Radziejewski  studied 
experimentally  the  influence  of  cathartics  upon  peristalsis  by 
means  of  intestinal  fistulae  in  dogs  and  found  that  the  peristaltic 
movements  of  the  intestines  and  the  flow  of  fluid  through  the 
fistulae  were  considerably  increased  after  the  administration  of 
laxatives.  Intestinal  peristalsis  may  be  stimulated  reflexly  from 
the  stomach  by  some  drugs;  croton  oil,  for  example,  will  produce 
diarrhoea  while  it  is  yet  in  the  stomach.  Acceleration  of  peri- 
stalsis causes  a  more  rapid  discharge  of  the  intestinal  contents.  On 
account  of  the  decreased  absorption  of  the  intestinal  fluids,  the 
discharges  are  thin  and  fluid;  they  are  the  unchanged  contents  of 
the  small  intestines. 

(d)  Increased  secretion  of  the  intestinal  glands  with  increase 
of  the  intestinal  fluids  and  acceleration  of  peristalsis.  The  most 
important  representatives  of  this  group  are  arecoline  and  pilo- 
carpine, specific  gland  stimulants.  The  neutral  salts  also  stimu- 
late the  intestinal  glands  during  their  elimination  from  the  blood, 
thus  making  their  action  a  four-fold  combination.  Intestinal 
secretion  is  also  stimulated  reflexly  by  those  drugs  which  irritate 
the  mucous  membrane,  especially  the  drastics. 

The  intestinal  fluids,  including  the  secretions  of  the  mucous 
glands,  Lieberktihn's  and  Bruner's  glands,  the  pancreas  and  liver, 
can  only  be  increased  in  sufficient  amount  to  produce  diarrhoea 
when  the  blood  is  rich  in  water.  As  Hay  has  pointed  out,  fluid 
bowel  discharges  are  not  produced  by  the  neutral  salts,  even  in 
large  doses,  when  animals  have  been  without  water  for  several 
days  and  have  received  only  dry  feed.  This  observation  agrees 
with  the  well-known  experience  of  veterinarians  that  a  horse  or 
cow  which  has  received  a  cathartic  must  be  permitted  to  drink  a 
large  quantity  of  water  in  order  to  accelerate  the  action  of  the 
drug  and  increase  its  effect. 

(e)  Transudation  and  exudation  of  blood-serum  as  a  cause  of 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  43 

collection  of  fluid  and  increased  peristalsis  occur  as  the  result  of 
the  action  of  any  of  the  irritant  cathartics  which  produce  hyper- 
aemia,  catarrh  or  inflammation  in  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane. 
In  this  group  are  included  croton  oil,  tartar  emetic,  colocynth,  jalap, 
gamboge  and  other  drastics.  These  drugs  should  not  be  prescribed 
in  acute  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  intestines. 

(f)  Intestinal  tetanus,  with  rapid  expulsion  of  the  intestinal 
contents,  is  the  cause  of  the  cathartic  action  of  eserine,  nicotine 
and  barium  chloride  and  partly  also  of  arecoline  and  pilocarpine. 

(g)  Paralysis  of  the  splanchnic,  the  inhibitory  nerve  of  the 
intestines,  results  in  the  acceleration  of  peristalsis.  Atropine  acts 
in  this  manner. 

(h)  Lubrication  of  the  intestinal  walls  mechanically  accelerates 
the  passage  of  the  intestinal  contents.  This  is  the  mode  of  action 
of  the  fixed  oils,  but  in  part  only  of  castor  oil. 

Results  of  Catharsis. — Scarcely  any  other  action  of  drugs  is 
accompanied  by  so  many  local  and  general  effects  as  catharsis. 
To  begin  with,  the  intestinal  canal  is  emptied  of  whatever  it  may 
contain:  normal  contents,  fermented  or  decomposed  food,  calculi, 
concrements,  poisons,  inflanunatory  products,  parasites  or  infec- 
tious materials.  Secondly,  peristalsis  is  accelerated  and  the 
secretions  of  the  intestinal  glands  increased.  Some  cathartics, 
as  aloes,  rhubarb,  colocynth  and  podophyllum,  at  the  same  time 
increase  the  secretion  of  bile;  these  are  called  the  cholagogue 
cathartics.  The  withdrawal  of  fluid  from  the  blood  into  the  intes- 
tines has  the  effect  of  condensing  the  blood,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  blood  absorbs  fluids  from  the  tissues  (hydragogue 
cathartics).  The  volume  of  the  blood  is  decreased  by  the  loss  of 
fluid  and  the  blood-pressure  is  lowered.  The  distribution  of  blood 
is  materially  changed  and  the  body  temperature  is  lowered.  While 
the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  and  the  other  abdominal  organs 
are  rich  in  blood,  especially  after  the  administration  of  drastics, 
the  more  distant  organs,  as  the  brain,  lungs  and  skin,  are  corre- 
spondingly poor  in  blood,  the  blood  being  diverted  from  the  latter 
to  the  intestines.  The  activity  of  the  kidneys  is  at  first  increased 
by  some  cathartics;  for  example,  diuresis  is  increased  a  few  hours 


44  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

after  the  administration  of  the  neutral  salts.  Usually,  however, 
the  secretory  activity  of  the  kidneys  is  reduced  by  cathartics. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  the  sweat  glands.  Another  effect  of  the 
increased  secretion  of  the  intestinal  glands  is  the  elimination  of 
infectious  material,  metabolic  products  and  poisons  from  the 
blood.  Emptying  the  intestinal  canal  withdraws  nourishment 
and  more  or  less  disturbance  of  the  appetite,  and  digestion  is  also 
associated  with  catharsis.  Finally  the  drastics,  like  cutaneous 
irritants,  by  irritating  the  sensory  nerves  in  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  exert  reflexly  a  general  stimulant  action  upon  the 
nervous  system,  affecting  the  animal  as  well  as  the  vegetative 
functions.  In  this  action  the  principle  of  counter  irritation  plays 
an  important  role. 

Use  of  Cathartics. — On  account  of  their  manifold  action 
cathartics  are  employed  in  the  treatment  of  a  large  number  of  dis- 
eases. 

1.  Constipation  and  depressed  peristalsis  in  the  course  of 
intestinal  catarrhs,  constipation-colic  in  horses,  fecal  stasis  in  dogs, 
and  high  fever  with  suppressed  intestinal  secretions. 

2.  Overfeeding  of  herbivora;  also  the  presence  of  foreign 
bodies,  poisons,  parasites,  bacteria,  and  toxins  in  the  intestines. 

3.  Diarrhoeas  and  gastric  catarrhs  due  to  fermenting  food- 
masses  or  infectious  materials  in  the  intestines.  These  conditions 
occur  in  dysentery,  canine  distemper,  influenza  of  horses,  swine 
erysipelas  and  fowl  cholera.  Calomel  is  especially  indicated  in 
these  conditions  because  it  is  also  disinfectant. 

4.  Liver  diseases,  especially  catarrhal  icterus. 

5.  Hyperaemia  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pleura,  brain, 
spinal  cord,  skin  (urticaria),  pododerm  (laminitis;  arecoline)  and 
udder  (mastitis).  In  these  conditions  cathartics  are  used  for  their 
derivative  and  antiphlogistic  effects. 

6.  Dropsical  conditions;  also  to  assist  the  resorption  of  fluid 
and  solid  exudates. 

7.  Acute  and  chronic  nephritis,  and  uraemia.  The  compensa- 
tory increase  in  the  secretions  of  the  intestinal  glands  relieves  the 
kidneys  in  these  conditions. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  45 

8.  In  obesity,  gout  and  increased  sexual  impulse  to  withdraw 
nourishment  and  reduce  bodily  strength. 

9.  Prophylactically,  against  parturient  apoplexy  and  azoturia. 

10.  To  prepare  cryptorchids  for  operations;  also  animals  for 
intestinal  operations  (laparotomy). 

Cathartics  are  contraindicated  in  severe  non-infectious  in- 
flammation of  the  stomach  or  intestines,  in  very  weak,  anaemic 
animals,  in  advanced  pregnancy,  in  peritonitis  (extension  of  the 
inflammation  over  the  whole  peritoneum  by  the  increased  peri- 
stalsis), and  in  prolapse  of  the  rectum.  When  a  cathartic  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  any  of  these  conditions  castor  oil  or  calomel 
should  be  used.  On  account  of  the  elimination  of  cathartics 
in  the  milk,  neutral  salts  or  other  indifferent  substances  should  be 
given  to  milk  cows  instead  of  aloes. 

The  Individual  Cathartics. — 1.  Physostigminae  salicylas. 
Physostigminae  stilphas.  Eserine.  An  important  cathartic  for 
the  horse  in  constipation  colic.  Operates  within  a  half  hour. 
Also  used  in  combination  with  pilocarpine.  Contraindicated  in 
excessive  distention  and  paralysis  of  the  intestines,  engorgement  of 
the  stomach,  tympanites,  spasmodic  colic,  pregnancy  and  dyspnoea. 
Dose  for  the  horse,  0.05-0.1,  gr.  %  to  jss,  subcutaneously. 

2.  Arecolinae  hydrobromidum.  Arecoline  combines  the  action 
of  physostigmine  (eserine)  and  pilocarpine,  is  cheaper,  more  stable 
and  is  effective  in  smaller  dose.  Especially  valuable  in  laminitis, 
€olic  and  inflammation  of  the  brain.  Dose  for  the  horse,  0.05-0.08, 
gr.  M  to  j. 

3.  Aloe.  Aloes.  A  cathartic  for  horses  and  cattle  in  impaction 
colic,  chronic  intestinal  catarrhs,  inflammation  of  the  brain  and  lami- 
nitis; also  a  cholagogue.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  operating 
slowly:  18  to  36  hours  after  administration.  Dose  for  the  horse, 
25-50,  3vj  to  xij;  for  cattle,  40-60,  3x  to  5ij.  [Dose  of  aloin  for 
the  horse,  8-12,  5ij  to  iij;  produces  less  dulness,  nausea  and  grip- 
ing than  aloes  and  is  more  prompt  in  action.] 

4.  The  neutral  salts:  Sodii  sulphas,  magnesii  sulphas,  and  *sal 
Carolinum  factitium  (artificial  Carlsbad  salts).  Mild  and  slow 
acting  cathartics;  used  alone  or  to  assist  other  cathartics,  as  aloes, 


46  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

arecoline  and  eserine,  in  constipation  and  colic,  and  to  produce  a 
derivative  action.  They  are  at  the  same  time  diuretics  and  chola- 
gogues.  For  cattle,  they  are  in  general  somewhat  too  weak,  and  in 
horses  their  action  occurs  only  after  1  or  2  days.  They  are  too  bulky 
for  dogs.  The  dose  of  sodium  sulphate,  magnesium  sulphate 
and  Carlsbad  salts  for  horses  is  250-500,  lb.  ss  to  j;  for  cattle, 
500-1000,  lb.  j  to  ij ;  sheep  and  goats,  25-50,  5  vj  to  xij ;  swine,  25-50, 
5vj  to  xij;  dogs,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  cats  and  fowl,  2-5,  5ss  to  j. 

5.  Hydrargyri  chloridum  mite.  Calomel.  The  most  impor- 
tant cathartic  for  dogs  and  swine;  best  intestinal  disinfectant;  may 
also  be  given  in  inflammatory  and  ulcerous  conditions  of  the  intes- 
tines; should  not  be  administered  to  cattle  and  should  be  used  on 
horses  with  caution.  Dose  as  a  laxative,  for  swine,  1-4,  grs.  xv  to 
5j;  dogs,  0.2-0.4,  grs.  iij  to  vj;  cats,  0.1,  grs.  jss;  fowl,  0.05-0.2,  grs. 
M  to  iij. 

6.  Antimonii  et  potassii  tartras.  Tartar  emetic.  A  good  laxa- 
tive for  horses  and  cattle,  especially  in  colic  and  parturient  apoplexy 
and  to  produce  a  derivative  action  upon  the  intestines;  should  not 
be  given  to  weak  animals.  Dose  for  horses,  2-10,  5  ss  to  ij  ss ;  cattle, 
10-20,  5ijss  to  v;  sheep  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx;  calves,  0.3-0.5,  grs.  iv 
to  vij. 

7.  Oleum  ricini.  Castor  oil.  A  mild  cathartic  for  all  the 
domestic  animals,  but  especially  for  dogs;  may  also  be  given  in 
inflammation  of  the  intestines;  contraindicated  in  phosphorus 
and  cantharides  poisoning.  Dose  for  dogs,  15-60,  5  ss  to  ij ;  horses, 
250-750,  Oss  to  jss;  cattle,  500-1000,  Oj  to  ij;  foals,  calves,  sheep 
and  goats,  50-250,  5  jss  to  viij;  swine,  50-100,  5  jss  to  iij;  cats  and 
fowl,  10-30,  5ijssto  5i. 

[8.  Oleum  lini.  Linseed  oil.  In  the  United  States  linseed  oil 
is  more  commonly  used  as  a  cathartic  for  horses  and  cattle  than 
castor  oil.     Dose  same  as  castor  oil.] 

9.  Oleum  tiglii.  Croton  oil.  The  most  powerful  drastic 
cathartic  for  the  horse;  other  drugs  are  more  desirable;  contrain- 
dicated in  all  cases  of  intestinal  inflammation  and  for  weak  and 
sensitive  animals.  Dose  for  horses,  0.6-1.5,  tujx  to  xx;  cattle,  1-2^ 
vmxv  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.07-0.12,  iruj  to  ij. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  47 

10.  Rheum.  Rhubarb.  A  very  mild  cathartic  for  dogs  and 
cats,  the  catharsis  being  followed  by  constipation.  Also  a  stom- 
achic and  cholagogue.  Dose  for  dogs,  5-15,  5j  to  iij;  cats  and 
fowl,  2-5,  5ss  to  5j-  [Of  Tinctura  rhei,  the  cathartic  dose  for  the 
dog  is  1  to  23^  tablespoonfuls;  cats,  }<£  to  1  teaspoonfuL] 

11.  Senna.  A  cathartic  for  the  small  domestic  animals,  espe- 
cially swine.  Dose  for  swine,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  dogs,  5-15,  5i  to 
iij ;  cats,  2-5,  5ss  to  j ;  fowl,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx. 

12.  Cambogia.  Gamboge.  A  drastic  cathartic  for  swine  and 
dogs.     Dose  for  swine,  2-4,  5  ss  to  j ;  dogs,  0.2-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv. 

13.  Jalapa.  Jalap.  A  drastic  cathartic,  cholagogue  and 
hydragogue  for  the  small  domestic  animals.  Dose  for  swine,  5-15, 
5j  to  iij;  dogs,  0.5  to  4,  grs.  vij  to  5j- 

14.  Podophyllum.  A  powerful  drastic  cathartic  and  chola- 
gogue. The  dose  should  be  gauged  cautiously.  Dose  for  dogs, 
0.1-0.25,  grs.  jss  to  iijss. 

15.  Colocynthis.  Colocynth.  Action  same  as  podophyllum. 
Dose  for  swine,  8,  3ij;  dogs  and  cats,  0.2-2,  grs.  iij  to  xxx. 

16.  *Syrupus  rhamni  catharticae  (N.F.).  Action  the  same  as 
podophyllum  and  colocynth.     Dose  for  dogs,  1  to  2  tablespoonfuls. 

17.  Tabaciun.  Tobacco.  Used  formerly  in  colic  in  horses  in 
the  form  of  smoke  clysters. 

18.  *Barii  chloridimi.  Quickest  acting  cathartic  when  injected 
intravenously.  Dose  for  the  horse,  0.5-1.25,  grs.  vij  to  xviij,  the 
latter  for  large  horses.  A  heroic  and  very  toxic  colic  remedy; 
must  be  used  with  caution  in  heart  weakness  (given  in  fractional 
doses,  0.25-0.5,  grs.  iij  to  vij,  at  15-minute  intervals). 

19.  Sulphur  sublimatum,  S.  praecipitatum,  S.  lotum.  Sulphur. 
Rarely  used  now  as  a  cathartic.     Dose  for  swine,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj. 

20.  Manna.  A  mild  cathartic.  Dose  for  dogs,  10-50,  3ijss  to 
xij. 

21.  Glycerinum.  Glycerin.  Used  in  the  form  of  clysters. 
An  uncertain  cathartic. 

Patients,  especially  horses  and  cattle,  should  be  prepared  for  the 
action  of  a  cathartic;  feed  should  be  withdrawn  and  plenty  of 
drinking  water  given.     If  there  is  no  action  within  the  usual  time 


48  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

the  animal  should  be  given  exercise  at  a  walk.  Usually,  the  dose 
should  not  be  repeated.  During  catharsis  the  animal  should  be 
protected  from  cold  and  overexertion.  These  statements  apply 
especially  to  aloes  and  croton  oil.  Generally,  only  one  cathartic  is 
given,  as  eserine,  arecoline,  calomel,  aloes  or  castor  oil.  Sometimes 
several  are  given,  one  after  another,  when  the  first  one  fails  to 
operate.  In  the  Berlin  medical  clinic,  for  example,  in  cases  of  sim- 
ple constipation-colic  of  the  horse,  arecoline  is  first  administered. 
If,  after  an  hour,  no  action  occurs,  then  eserine  is  injected.  If 
the  eserine  also  fails  to  operate  in  an  hour  (intestinal  obstruction), 
then  an  aloes  pill  is  given.  Two  aloes  pills,  one  shortly  after  the 
other,  are  dangerous  and  should  not  be  given.  In  some  cases  sev- 
eral drugs  are  combined;  for  example,  aloes  with  sodium  sulphate, 
or  croton  oil  with  castor  oil.  Tartar  emetic  and  aloes  should  not 
be  administered  at  the  same  time  (poisoning), 

3.  CONSTIPATING  REMEDIES.    STYPTICS 

Synonyms:  Enterostyptics,  antidiarrhoecs,  obstruents,  antidysenterics, 
anticathartics,  anexosmotics,  astringents,  protectives. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  constipating  drugs,  which  in  their 
action  are  directly  opposed  to  the  cathartics,  operate  to  check 
diarrhoea  in  several  ways:  by  reducing  increased  sensibility  of  the 
intestinal  mucous  membrane;  by  depressing  the  increased  peri- 
stalsis; by  contracting  the  hypersemic  and  swollen  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  finally  by  inhibiting  abnormal  fermentation  which 
may  be  the  cause  of  intestinal  irritation.  These  drugs  are  accord- 
ingly divided  into  the  following  groups: 

(a)  Demulcent  Styptics  (Protectives). — Linseed,  althaea, 
acacia,  compound  acacia  powder  (N.F.),  tragacanth,  *salep, 
*mallow,  emulsions,  mucilaginous  food  materials  (mucilage  of  oats 
and  rye,  rice  water).  The  vegetable  mucilage  contained  in  these 
substances  covers  the  inflamed  and  abnormally  sensitive  intestinal 
mucous  membrane,  preventing  the  intestinal  contents  from  coming 
into  direct  contact  with  it  and  protecting  it  from  irritation.  The 
drugs  in  this  group  of  styptics  are  only  mildly  constipating  and  are 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  49 

indicated  only  in  slight  diarrhoea  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  condi- 
tion. They  are  frequently  combined  with  styptics  of  the  other 
groups. 

(b)  Narcotic  Styptics. — Opium,  morphine,  and  codeine. 
These  anaesthetize  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  and  thereby 
prevent  the  reflex  stimulation  of  peristalsis.  They  also  stimulate 
the  splanchnic  nerve,  the  inhibitory  nerve  of  the  intestines.  Opium 
is  the  most  valuable  antidiarrhoeic  and  should  be  prescribed  as 
early  as  possible  and  in  sufficient  quantity  in  every  severe  case  of 
diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis.  It  is  frequently  administered 
with  mucilaginous  drugs. 

'(c)  Astringent  Styptics. — Tannin  or  tannic  acid,  *tanno- 
form,  *tannalbin,  *tannigen,  *tannopin  (the  last  three  very  expen- 
sive); the  tannin-containing  vegetable  astringents:  oak  bark, 
cinchona  bark,  rhubarb,  nutgall,  *catechu,2  rhatany,  *tormen- 
tilla  root,  salvia  leaves,  uva  ursi,  *folia  juglans,  red  wine,  *coffee 
and  *roasted  acorns;  the  metaUic  astringents :  alum,  iron  sulphate, 
lead  acetate,  argentic  nitrate,  zinc  oxide,  argilla,  and  lime  water. 
These  drugs  operate  by  constricting  the  blood  vessels  of  the  hyper- 
aemic  and  inflamed  intestinal  mucous  membrane,  by  contracting 
the  latter  and  expressing  the  fluids,  and  by  the  formation  of  a  scab 
of  tannin  or  metallic  albuminate.  The  metallic  astringents  are 
the  most  constipating,  while  the  vegetable  astringents  are  fre- 
quently ineffective  in  severe  diarrhoea,  especially  in  horses  and 
cattle,  even  in  very  large  doses. 

(d)  Antiseptic  Styptics. — Calomel,  *creolin,  tar,  creosote, 
bismuth  subnitrate  and  salicylic  acid.  These  operate  by  sup- 
pressing or  destroying  the  bacteria  of  fermentation  and  infectious 
materials  in  the  intestinal  canal  which  cause  diarrhoea  by  their 
decomposition  products.  Dysentery  and  other  infectious  diar- 
rhoeas especially  are  effectively  treated  with  creolin,  calomel  or 
salicylic  acid.  Even  anthrax  in  cattle  has  been  cured  many  times 
by  creolin. 

Drugs. — 1.  Opium.    An   excellent   styptic   for   all   domestic 

*  [Replaced  by  gambir  in  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia,  1900.] 
4 


50  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

animals  in  dysentery,  intestinal  catarrh  and  enteritis.  Dose  for 
horses,  5-20,  5j  to  v;  cattle,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  sheep,  goats,  foals, 
calves,  and  swine,  1-3,  grs.  xv  toxlv;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  jss  to  vij; 
cats,  0.05-0.2,  gr.  %  to  iij;  chickens,  0.1,  grs.  jss;  pigeons,  0.05,  gr. 
5^.  Dose  of  Tinctura  opii  ten  times  these  quantities.  *Pantopon 
is  an  artificial  mixture  of  the  alkaloids  of  opium. 

2.  Acidmn  tannicum.  Tannic  acid  or  tannin.  A  styptic  for 
the  lighter  diarrhoeas  of  mycotic,  toxic,  and  infectious  origin. 
Dose  for  horses,  5-15,  3j  to  3jv;  cattle,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  sheep 
and  goats,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  jss  to  vij;  fowl, 
0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  J^.  Dose  of  the  tannin-containing  vegetable 
drugs,  Quercus  (oak  bark),  etc.,  for  horses  and  cattle,  25-50, 
3vj  to  xij.  The  action  of  *tannalbin,  *tannopin,  *tannoform,  and 
the  other  newer  preparations  is  similar  to  that  of  tannic  acid.  The 
dose  of  tannoform  for  horses  and  cattle  is  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj ;  calves 
and  foals,  5-10,  3i  to  ijss;  dogs,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx. 

3.  Rheum.  Rhubarb.  A  valuable  antidiarrhceic  in  dysentery 
of  sucklings,  especially  white  scours  of  calves  and  foals.  Dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  25-50,  3vj  to  xij;  calves  and  foals,  5-10,  3j  to 
ijss;  dogs,  1-2,  grs.  xv.  to  xxx;  lambs,  fowl  and  cats,  0.5-1,  grs. 
vij  to  XV.    Of  tinctura  rhei,  the  dose  for  dogs  is  J^  to  1  teaspoonful. 

4.  Alumen.  Alum.  A  mild  styptic  in  diarrhoea  and  intes- 
tinal hemorrhage.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  10-25,  3 ijss  to  vj; 
dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 

5.  Ferri  sulphas.  Iron  sulphate.  A  more  powerful  styptic, 
especially  for  infectious  diarrhoeas,  dysentery,  fowl  cholera,  and 
gastric  and  intestinal  hemorrhages.  Dose  for  horses,  10-25, 
3 ijss  to  vj ;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  jss  to  vij ;  fowl,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij. 

6.  Liquor  calcis.  Lime  water.  A  good  styptic  in  diarrhoea  of 
sucklings,  dysentery  and  intestinal  ulcers.  Dose  for  calves,  3^  to 
1  pint;  dogs,  1  to  2  tablespoonfuls.  Calcii  carbonas  praecipitatus 
(precipitated  calcium  carbonate)  has  a  similar  action.  [Dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  30-60,  5j  to  ij;  dogs,  0.6^,  grs.  x  to  3j.] 

7.  Plumbi  acetas.  Lead  acetate.  A  very  powerful  styptic  in 
persistent  diarrhoea;  must  be  administered  to  cattle  cautiously. 
Dose  for  horses,  2-10,  3ss  to  ijss;  cattle,  1-5,  grs.  xv.  to  3j;  sheep, 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  51 

goats,  and  swine,  0.3-1,  grs.  jv  toxv;  dogs,  0.05-0.3,  grs.  %  to  jv; 
cats  and  fowl,  0.01-0.05,  grs.  1/8  to  %. 

8.  Argenti  nitras.  Silver  nitrate.  The  most  powerful 
styptic.  Specific  for  intestinal  ulcers.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle, 
0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  0.05-0.1,  grs. 
%  to  jss;  dogs,  0.01-0.05,  grs.  1/8  to  %;  fowl  and  cats,  0.01-0.02, 
grs.  1/8  to  M- 

9.  *Creolm.  A  specific  against  all  diarrhoeas  of  mycotic  and 
infectious  origin,  calf  cholera  and  diarrhoea  of  pigs.  Dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  calves,  sheep,  goats,  and 
swine,  0.5-1,  irijvij  to  xv;  dogs,  0.5-1,  ir^vij  to  xv;  fowl,  0.1-0.25, 
TTjjjss  to  jv.  Naphthalenum  and  resorcinol  (resorcin)  may  be 
used  in  the  same  doses. 

10.  Hydrargyri  chloridiim  mite.  Calomel.  A  styptic  in  the 
dysenteric  type  of  diarrhoea  in  the  dog.  Dose,  0.03-0.1,  grs. 
1/3  to  jss.     Not  to  be  administered  to  cattle,  sheep  or  goats. 

11.  Bismuth!  subnitras.  Bismuth  subnitrate.  A  disinfectant 
styptic  for  all  of  the  domestic  animals.  Dose  for  horses,  5-15, 
5j  to  jv;  dogs,  0.25-1,  grs.  jv  to  xv. 

12.  Acidtmi  salicylicimi.  Salicylic  acid.  An  important  dis- 
infectant styptic  in  calf  cholera.  Dose,  1-5,  grs.  xv  to  5j  in  alco- 
holic solution. 

4.  MECHANICAL  AND  OPERATIVE  TREATMENT 

The  depressed  peristalsis  of  constipation  and  colic  may  be 
stimulated  reflexly  by  mechanical  means.  Massage  of  the  ab- 
domen, which  is  especially  valuable  in  coprostasis  in  dogs;  the 
application  of  irritants  to  the  skin;  exercise;  the  manual  emptying 
of  the  rectum;  infusions  of  water  and  rectal  clysters  (soap,  oil, 
glycerin,  suppositories),  and  massage  of  the  intestines  per  rectum 
in  colic  in  horses  all  operate  in  this  manner. 

Operative  measures  include  puncture  of  the  intestines  with  trocar 
and  cannula  (flatulent  colic),  enterotomy  (foreign  bodies  in  dogs), 
laparotomy  (invagination  and  incarceration  of  intestinal  loops 
in  cattle),  and  the  reposition  of  the  displaced  colon  in  horses  by 
rolling  as  in  torsion  of  the  uterus.       The  operative  treatment  of 


52         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

hemise,  invaginations  and  prolapse  of  the  intestines  is  a  chapter 
in  itself. 

The  physical  treatment  of  colic  in  horses  is  especially  important. 
Rectal  examination  and  treatment  has  always  received  great  con- 
sideration in  the  clinics  and  from  judicious  practitioners.  (See  the 
text-books  on  special  pathology  and  therapeutics.) 

Carminatives.  Gas-expelling  Drugs. — The  name  carminative  is  used  to 
designate  a  group  of  drugs  which  remove  flatulence  from  the  intestines.  Ab- 
normal fermentation  of  the  intestinal  contents  produces  collections  of  gases 
(carburetted  hydrogen,  hydrogen,  hydrogen  sulphide,  carbonic  acid)  which 
cause  flatulence  and  tympanites,  with  painful  distention  and  tetanic  contrac- 
tion of  the  intestinal  wall  (flatulent  colic).  In  horses  the  gaseous  collection 
occurs  especially  in  the  large  intestines;  in  cattle,  in  the  rumen;  in  the  small 
domestic  animals,  in  the  small  and  large  intestines.  Three  varieties  of  carmin- 
atives are  recognized,  as  follows: 

(a)  Antispasmodics:  This  group  includes  the  ethereal  oils — caraway, 
fennel,  anise,  chamomile,  peppermint,  melissa,  valerian,  angelica,  garlic,  and 
asafetida;  also  chloral  hydrate,  ether  and  spirit  of  ether.  The  aromatics 
(caraway,  chamomile,  peppermint,  etc.)  possess  antispasmodic  and  antifermen- 
tative  properties  and  are  the  most  used  carminatives.  Dose  for  the  horse, 
10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  cattle,  25-50,  5vj  to  xij;  dogs,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xxx.  Dose 
of  the  ethereal  oils:  horses,  1-5,  ngxv  to  5j;  dogs,  drop  doses.  Ether  is  a 
good  carminative  for  horses  and  dogs.  Dose  for  horses,  25-50,  5vj  to  xij; 
dogs,  2-5,  Sss  to  j  (internally). 

(b)  Gas  absorbents:  Compound  rhubarb  powder,  magnesium  oxide, 
lime  water,  ammonia  water.  Ptilvis  rhei  compositus  is  an  important  carmina- 
tive (absorbent)  for  sucklings. 

(c)  Anti-ferments:  *Creolin,  calomel  and  naphthalin.  Creolin  is  given 
to  horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  calves,  sheep  and  goats, 
0.5-1,  TiRvij  to  XV, 

IV.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Liver 

Pathology. — The  therapeutic  importance  of  diseases  of  the  liver 
in  animals  is  relatively  slight  compared  to  man.  Of  most  fre- 
quent occurrence  and  of  greatest  practical  importance  are  the 
parasitic  diseases,  especially  distomatosis  (liver  rot)  and  echino- 
coccus  cysts,  but  these  cannot  be  treated  directly,  and  can  at  best 
only  be  influenced  by  prophylactic  measures.    This  is  also  true  of 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  53 

cirrhosis  of  the  Hver  and  acute  yellow  atrophy  (lupinosis).  Gall- 
stones, abscesses,  ruptures,  and  carcinoma  are  rare  and  as  a  rule  are 
incurable.  There  remains  for  practical  therapeutics  only  icterus, 
which  is  frequently  presented  for  treatment,  especially  in  dogs. 

Physiology. — The  physiological  functions  of  the  liver  are  not 
entirely  understood.  In  addition  to  the  secretion  of  bile  (digestion 
of  fat)  and  the  production  of  glycogen  (regulation  of  carbohydrate 
metabolism),  the  liver  appears  to  be  active  in  the  removal  of  poi- 
sons from  the  body.  This  function  is  exercised  chiefly  in  the 
excretion  of  toxic  substances  formed  in  the  body  (auto-intoxication), 
but  poisons  and  drugs  are  also  eliminated.  In  addition,  antitoxic 
substances  appear  to  be  formed  in  the  liver  to  protect  and  immu- 
nize the  body  against  infectious  diseases;  an  example  of  this  is  the 
immunizing  action  of  the  bile  in  rinderpest.  Finally,  important 
transformations  and  metabolic  processes  take  place  in  the  liver 
(disintegration  of  red  blood-cells,  formation  of  urea  and  uric  acid, 
decomposition  of  alkaloids).  On  the  other  hand,  recent  investiga- 
tions cast  doubt  upon  the  antiseptic  properties  formerly  attributed 
to  bile  by  which  it  was  assumed  to  prevent  putrefaction  in  the 
intestines  (only  the  free  bile  acids  exert  a  disinfectant  action  upon 
the  intestinal  contents). 

Therapeutic  Methods. — In  icterus  and  in  circulatory  disturb- 
ances of  the  liver  (acute  and  passive  hypersemia,  hepatitis),  the 
hver  can  be  affected  either  by  stimulation  of  the  secreting  liver 
ceUs,  or  by  removal  of  mechanical  obstructions  to  the  outflow  of 
bile,  or  by  regulating  the  circulation  of  blood  in  the  organ.  Cathar- 
tics and  intestinal  disinfectants  act  as  prophylactics  by  protecting 
the  liver  from  harmful  material  in  the  intestines.  The  liver  also  in 
some  diseases  possesses  a  pronounced  capacity  for  self-protection 
and  for  compensatory  processes  (compensatory  hypertrophy  in 
distomatosis). 

The  methods  of  treatment  most  frequently  used  are  the 
medical  (cholagogues),  dietetic  and  mechanical.  The  operative 
methods  used  in  human  medicine  for  gall-stones,  abscesses, 
wounds,  and  echinococci  are  of  no  practical  importance  in 
veterinary  medicine. 


54  GEENRAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

1.  CHOLAGOGUES.     STIMULANTS  TO  BILE  SECRETION 
Synonyms:     Hepatics,  hepatic  stimulants,  liver  remedies. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Cholagogues  increase  the  secretion  of  bile 
by  direct  action  upon  the  gland  cells  of  the  liver  and  in  part  by- 
reflex  stimulation  from  the  stomach  and  intestines.  They  are 
used  in  all  diseases  of  the  liver  in  which  the  secretion  of  bile  is 
decreased,  as  in  icterus.  According  to  the  investigations  of 
Rutherford  (British  Medical  Journal,  1877),  which  have  been 
recently  amplified  and  confirmed  by  Ellenberger,  Baum,  Doyon, 
Dufour,  Wissogradow  and  others,  two  classes  of  cholagogues  must 
be  recognized:  (a)  those  which  produce  a  laxative  effect  simul- 
taneously with  their  action  upon  the  liver  and  (b)  those  which 
operate  exclusively  upon  the  liver. 

(a)  The  cholagogue  laxatives  are  rhubarb,  aloes,  podophyllum, 
jalap,  colocynth,  gamboge,  colchicum,  arecoline,  pilocarpine, 
eserine,  euonymus,  leptandra,  baptisin,  sodium  sulphate,  potas- 
sium sulphate,  sodium  phosphate,  Carlsbad  salts  and  potassium 
bitartras. 

(b)  The  simple  cholagogues  are  sodium  bicarbonate,  sodium 
salicylate,  aspirin  (acetyl-acidum  salicylicum)  and  other  salicy- 
lates, benzoate  of  soda,  ipecac  and  nitric  acid. 

Calomel,  epsom  salts,  castor  oil  and  croton  oil,  which  were 
formerly  valued  as  cholagogues,  are  on  the  contrary  depressants 
of  bile  secretion  in  consequence  of  their  strong  stimulant  effect 
upon  the  intestinal  glands.  They  are  therefore  designated  as  anti- 
cholagogues.    Lead  acetate  also  decreases  the  secretion  of  bile. 

Drugs. — 1.  Rheum,  aloe,  sodii  sulphas,  sal  Carolinum  facti- 
tium  N.F.  (artificial  Carlsbad  salts),  etc.  For  doses,  see  under 
Cathartics,  pages  44,  45. 

2.4  Ipecacuanha.  Ipecac.  Dose  for  swine  and  dogs,  1-3,  grs. 
XV  to  xlv. 

3.  Sodii  salicylas.  A  very  good  cholagogue.  Dose  for  horses 
and  cattle,  25-75,  5vj  to  5ijss;  swine,  2-5,  3ss  to  j;  dogs,  0.25-2, 
grs.  jv  to  XXX.     *  Aspirin  is  given  in  the  same  doses. 

4.  Acidum  nitricum.     Given  to  dogs  in  drop  doses,  diluted. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  55 

Concerning  the  cholagogue  action  of  the  emetics,  see  page  34. 
Bile  secretion  is  also  increased  by  large  quantities  of  water  and  by  a 
meat  diet.  The  bile  acids  also  have  a  cholagogue  action,  which 
explains  the  former  use  of  bile  (fel  bovis).  According  to  recent 
investigations,  Carlsbad  water  only  renders  the  bile  more  fluid  and 
does  not  increase  the  secretion  of  bile  proper. 

2.  DIETETIC  AND  MECHANICAL  METHODS 

In  dogs  affected  with  icterus,  as  in  man,  the  secretion  of  bile 
may  be  increased  by  a  diet  of  meat  and  milk  and  by  the  adminis- 
tration of  large  quantities  of  water.  The  latter  facilitates  the 
reabsorption  from  the  intestines  into  the  blood  of  the  bile  salts, 
which  have  a  cholagogue  action  (Schiff). 

The  circulation  of  blood  in  the  liver  is  mechanically  stimulated, 
directly  or  indirectly,  by  exercise,  massage  of  the  liver  (applied  in 
dogs  under  the  right  ribs),  cutaneous  irritation,  cold  infusions  into 
the  intestines;  emetics  and  cathartics. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  DISEASES  OF  THE 
ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION 

I.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Heart 

Pathology. — Therapeutically,  the  most  important  heart  dis- 
eases of  the  domestic  animals  are  chronic  endocarditis  (valvular 
insuflaciency)  and  cardiac  dilatation  (heart  weakness)  of  horses, 
cattle  and  dogs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  frequent  heart  dis- 
ease of  cattle,  traumatic  pericarditis,  due  to  the  passage  of  metallic 
foreign  bodies  from  the  reticulum  through  the  diaphragm  to  the 
pericardium  and  heart,  is  practically  not  affected  by  therapeutic 
measures.  Chronic  endocarditis  leads  to  valvular  insufficiency, 
with  secondary  compensatory  hypertrophy,  and  later  to  cardiac 
dilatation.  In  the  horse  and  dog  there  is  usually  an  insufficiency  of 
the  mitral  valve;  in  cattle,  more  frequently  an  insufficiency  or 
stenosis  of  the  tricuspid.  Acute  cardiac  dilatation  and  cardiac 
degeneration  occurs  frequently  in  all  the  domestic  animals,  but 
especially  in  the  horse  and  dog.  It  is  manifested  by  cardiac  weak- 
ness and  is  usually  associated  with  infectious  diseases:  contagious 
pneumonia,  foot-and-mouth  disease,  septicaemia;  sometimes  with 
overexertion  (horses).  Fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  is  fre- 
quently observed  in  dogs  and  swine. 

Physiology. — The  action  of  the  heart  consists  of  a  rhythmical 
contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  cardiac  muscle  (systole,  diastole, 
pause).  During  systole  the  blood  is  under  positive  pressure;  dur- 
ing diastole  it  is  under  a  negative  pressure,  corresponding  to  the 
sucking  of  a  pump.  The  pause,  or  period  of  rest,  is  especially 
important  because  it  affords  opportunity  for  the  recuperation  of 
the  heart.  The  valves  serve  to  regulate  the  flow  of  blood.  The 
cardiac  muscle  is  innervated  by  the  vagus,  the  inhibitory  nerve,  and 
by  the  sjmapathetic,  which  is  the  accelerator  nerve;  in  addition, 
there  are  also  automatic  intracardial  centres.  The  heart  muscle 
and  the  nerves  as  well  can  be  therapeutically  stimulated  by  me- 
chanical, chemical,  thermic  and  electrical  stimuli.  On  the  other 
56 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  57 

hand,  paralysis  of  the  heart  can  result  from  numerous  causes,  such 
as  cardiac  poisons,  disease  and  overexertion  of  the  myocardium, 
deficiency  of  oxygen,  insufficient  nourishment,  and  the  collection 
of  carbon  dioxide  and  other  products  of  decomposition.  The 
cardiac  muscle  possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  capacity  to  accom- 
modate itself  to  changed  relations  resulting  from  disease.  An 
example  is  the  compensatory  hypertrophy  of  valvular  insufficiency. 
The  recognition  of  this  compensation  as  a  natural  healing  process 
and  not  something  to  be  combated  by  therapeutic  measures  is  of 
primary  importance  in  the  rational  treatment  of  heart  diseases. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — Disturbances  of  the  pumping  mech- 
anism of  the  heart  may  result  from  disease  of  the  muscular  appa- 
ratus, the  nervous  system,  the  valvular  mechanism  or  the  nutritive 
blood-vessels.  The  treatment  required  will  depend  upon  the  con- 
dition present.  Drugs  affecting  the  muscles  or  the  nerves,  me- 
chanical methods  or  vasodilators  may  be  indicated.  The  compli- 
cated mechanical,  thermic  and  electrical  methods  of  human  medicine 
(change  of  climate,  baths,  hydrotherapy,  electrotherapy,  inhalation 
of  compressed  air)  are  not  apphcable  in  veterinary  medicine.  In 
the  latter,  treatment  of  cardiac  diseases  is  limited  mainly  to  the  use 
of  medicines.  The  rest  treatment  can  be  applied  to  animals  as  to 
man;  in  cardiac  weakness  the  heart  can  be  protected  by  reducing 
or  abolishing  work  and  exercise.  In  certain  conditions,  as  obesity 
in  dogs,  systematic  exercise  and  dietetic  treatment  may  be  insti- 
tuted. Regarding  the  latter,  decreasing  or  regulating  the  drinking 
water,  thereby  reducing  the  amount  of  fluid  in  the  blood  and 
decreasing  the  work  of  the  heart,  is  of  practical  importance  (Oertel's 
method).  In  dogs,  as  in  man,  food  that  is  too  bulky  can  be 
avoided  (milk  diet).  The  operative  treatment  of  cardiac  diseases, 
as  puncture  of  the  pericardium  in  pericarditis,  is  hardly  worth  con- 
sidering. 

CARDIACS.     HEART  REMEDIES 

Synonyms:  Polysphygmics,  bradysphygmics,  heart  stimulants,  heart 
tonics,  heart  sedatives. 

Classification. — The  cardiacs  are  classified  according  to  their 
action.     There  are  three  groups:  stimulants,  tonics  and  sedatives. 


58  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

1.  The  cardiac  stimulants  are  camphor,  hyoscine  (scopolamine), 
atropine,  caffeine,  veratrine,  alcohol,  ether,  ammonia,  ammonium 
carbonate  and  some  of  the  ethereal  oils  (valerian,  arnica).  These 
act  in  part  by  paralyzing  the  vagus,  the  nerve  of  inhibition,  cen- 
trically  or  peripherally;  in  part  by  stimulating  the  sjnnpathetic 
nerve  and  the  vasomotor  centre,  and  in  part  by  stimulation  of  the 
heart  muscle. 

2.  The  cardiac  tonics  are  digitalis,  strophanthus,  squill,  spar- 
teine, adonidin  and  convallamarin.  These  stimulate  the  vagus 
centrically  and  peripherally,  and  also  the  heart  muscle. 

3.  The  cardiac  sedatives  are  potassium  bromide,  chloral  hy- 
drate and  potassium  iodide.  These  act  in  part  by  depressing  the 
cardiac  centre  in  the  medulla  oblongata  and  in  part  by  depressing 
the  cardiac  muscle. 

Uses. — 1.  The  cardiac  stimulants  are  prescribed  in  all  cases  of 
acute  heart  weakness  such  as  may  occur  in  the  course  of  acute 
heart  diseases,  febrile  infectious  diseases  and  poisoning;  also  in 
syncope.  The  most  important  symptoms  of  heart  weakness  are  a 
weak  or  imperceptible,  very  frequent  or  slow  pulse;  in  the  begin- 
ning a  throbbing  heart  beat,  which  is  later  weak  or  imperceptible; 
indistinct  heart  sounds,  dyspnoea,  cyanosis  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, collapse. 

2.  The  cardiac  tonics  are  specific  for  chronic  heart  diseases, 
particularly  valvular  defects  in  the  stage  of  insufficiency.  They 
increase  the  force  of  contraction  of  the  heart  muscle,  slow  and 
regulate  the  rate  of  contraction,  increase  the  length  of  the  pause 
between  beats,  and  increase  the  blood-pressure.  They  are  indi- 
cated when  the  pulse  is  abnormally  rapid,  irregular  and  weak,  and 
the  heart  is  beating  tumultuously.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
contraindicated  in  valvular  insufficiency  when  compensatory 
hypertrophy  has  occurred,  in  cardiac  hypertrophy,  in  palpitation 
and  in  all  cases  in  which  the  pulse  is  strong  or  the  heart  beat  abnor- 
mally slow  (bradycardia). 

3.  The  cardiac  sedatives  are  prescribed  in  cardiac  excitement 
of  nervous  origin,  particularly  palpitation. 

Drugs. — 1.  Digitalis.     The  most  important  cardiac  for  val- 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  59 

vular  insufficiency  without  compensation.  Dose  of  the  leaves  for 
horses  and  cattle,  2-5,  5ss  to  j ;  dogs,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij.  Dose 
of  the  leaves  as  an  antipyretic  for  horses,  5-10,  5j  to  ijss. 

2.  Camphora.  A  powerful  stimulant  for  all  kinds  of  heart  weak- 
ness. Used  subcutaneously  in  the  form  of  spiritus  camphorae  or  dis- 
solved in  olive  oil  (1 : 9  or  1 : 4) .  The  stronger  camphorated  oil  (1 : 4) 
is  indicated  in  contagious  pneumonia  of  horses  especially;  it  is 
injected  subcutaneously  in  single  doses  of  50-150,  5jss  to  v;  daily 
doses  of  100-250, 5  iij  to  viij.    The  doses  heretofore  were  too  small. 

3.  Caffeina.  Caffeine.  One  of  the  best  cardiacs  in  acute 
heart  weakness;  acts  very  quickly  when  given  subcutaneously; 
specific  antidote  against  heart  poisons.  Dose  of  *cafifeinae  sodio- 
salicylas  (N.F.)  for  horses  and  cattle,  5-10,  5j  to  ijss;  large  dogs, 
0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx;  small  dogs,  0.1  to  0.5,  grs.  jss  to  vij.  Also 
administered  in  the  form  of  coffee. 

4.  Tinctura  strophanthi.  A  substitute  for  digitalis.  Dose  for 
horses,  4-15,  5j  to  jv;  dogs,  2  to  16  drops.  Strophanthin,  the 
active  principle,  produces  necrosis  when  injected  subcutaneously. 

5.  Atropinse  sulphas  and  hyoscinae  hydrobromidum  (scopo- 
lamine). Very  strong  stimulants  in  heart  weakness  in  the  course 
of  heart  diseases,  infectious  diseases  and  poisoning.  Act  very 
quickly  when  injected  subcutaneously.  Dose  of  atropine  sulphate 
for  horses  and  cattle,  0.05-0.1,  grs.  ^  to  jss;  dogs,  0.01-0.05,  gr. 
1/8  to  %.  Dose  of  hyoscine  (scopolamine)  hydrobromide  one- 
tenth  that  of  atropine  sulphate. 

6.  Veratrina.  Veratrin.  A  powerful  stimulant  in  the  heart 
weakness  of  fever.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to 
iij,  subcutaneously  in  solution  in  alcohol;  dogs,  0.001-0.005,  gr. 
1/70  to  3/40. 

7.  Alcohol.  An  excellent  stimulant  in  all  weak  conditions  of 
the  heart.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  25-50,  5  vj  to  xij ;  sheep  and 
goats,  10-20,  5 ijss  to  jv;  dogs,  2-5,  5ss  to  j.  Dose  of  spiritus  vini 
gallici  (brandy)  for  horses  and  cattle,  50-150,  gjss  to  5v;  dogs, 
tablespoonful. 

8.  Ether.  The  same.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  subcu- 
taneously, 10-25,  5vj  to  xij;  dogs,  0.5-2,  njjvij  to  xxx. 


60  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

9.  Ammonii  carbonas.  Ammonium  carbonate.  A  good  and 
cheap  stimulant  in  heart  weakness.  Dose  for  cattle,  20-50,  5  jv  to 
xij;  horses,  10-25,  3ijss  to  vj;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  1-2,  grs. 

XV  to  XXX. 

10.  Valeriana.  Valerian.  An  old  but  good  stimulant;  used 
in  the  form  of  tinctura  Valerianae.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle, 
20-50,  5jv  to  xij;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  5ss  to  3j;  dogs,  0.2-2, 
TTl^iij  to  xxx;  cats  and  fowl,  0.1-0.5,  ttjjjss  to  vij. 

11.  Potassii  iodidum.  Potassium  iodide  quiets  the  heart  and 
reduces  blood-pressure  in  hypertrophy  and  palpitation.  Dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  5-15,  3i  to  jv;  dogs,  0.25-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv;  cats, 
0.1-0.2,  gr.  jss  to  iij. 

12.  Potassii  bromidum  and  chloralum  hydratum.  Sedatives  in 
palpitation  of  the  heart.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  20-50,  Sjv  to 
xij ;  dogs,  1-2,  grs,  xv  to  xxx, 

II.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  the  Blood 

Pathology. — The  diseases  of  the  blood  consist  in  a  defect  in 
the  formation  of  the  blood.  The  total  quantity  may  be  decreased 
(anaemia,  pernicious  ansemia)  or,  as  more  rarely  happens,  in- 
creased (plethora) ;  the  number  of  white  blood-cells  may  be  greatly 
increased  (leukaemia),  the  number  of  red  cells  may  be  considerably 
decreased  (oligocythsemia),  or  the  water  content  of  the  blood  maybe 
increased  (hydrsemia) .  Pernicious  anaemia  is  a  specially  severe  form 
of  anaemia  with  characteristic  morphological  changes  in  the  red  blood- 
cells  (poikilocytosis,  macrocytosis,  microcytosis).  In  addition  to 
these  primary  diseases  of  the  blood,  anaemia  and  hydraemia  very  fre- 
quently occur  secondarily  in  chronic  disturbances  of  nutrition  and  in 
infectious  diseases  (chronic  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  tuberculosis, 
carcinoma  cachexia,  distomatosis)  and  after  loss  of  blood.  An  ab- 
normal thickening  of  the  blood  in  consequence  of  the  elimination  of 
water  occurs  in  heat  stroke  and  in  profuse  diarrhoea.  Finally,  the 
blood  shows  severe  parenchymatous  and  chemical  changes  in  fever 
(see  the  chapter  on  fever)  and  after  the  operation  of  poisons  such 
as  potassium  chlorate,  paraldehyde,  snake  venom,  carbon  monox- 
ide, saponin,  ricin  and  other  ferments;  also  in  infectious  diseases. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  61 

Physiology. — The  blood  transports  the  oxygen  and  the  fluid 
and  solid  nutrients  (albumin,  fats,  carbohydrates,  salts,  and  water) 
to  the  tissues  and  organs  and  carries  away  the  decomposition 
products  of  metabolism,  especially  the  carbon  dioxide  (lungs)  and 
the  fluid  and  solid  excretions  (kidneys,  liver,  intestinal  glands, 
cutaneous  glands).  The  most  important  morphological  elements 
of  the  blood  are  the  red  and  white  corpuscles  (the  blood-platelets 
are  regarded  by  some  as  products  of  the  decomposition  of  the 
white  blood-cells,  by  others  as  hsemoglobin-free  bodies  from  the 
interior  of  the  red  blood-cells).  The  red  blood-cells  (erythrocytes 
without  nuclei)  are  derived  from  the  red  bone  marrow.  They  are, 
on  account  of  the  haemoglobin  they  contain,  the  carriers  of  oxygen 
and  form  about  one-third  of  the  volume  of  the  blood.  A  cubic 
millimetre  of  horse's  blood  contains  seven  to  eight  million  red 
blood-cells.  The  white  blood-cells  (leucocytes)  originate  in  part 
from  the  red  marrow  of  bone  (granular  leucocytes)  and  in  part 
from  the  lymph  glands  and  spleen  (lymphocytes  without  granula- 
tion). They  are  much  less  numerous  than  the  red  blood-cells, 
there  being  only  one  white  corpuscle  to  350  red;  one  cubic  milli- 
metre of  horse's  blood  contains  9,000  leucocytes.  Their  functions 
are  manifold:  fat  resorption  in  the  intestines,  emigration,  phago- 
cytosis, immunization  in  inflammatory  and  infectious  diseases  and 
histogenetic  activity  in  healing  of  wounds  and  in  cicatrization. 

The  reaction  of  the  blood  is  alkaline  (KHCO3),  corresponding 
to  a  0.2  to  0.4  per  cent,  soda  solution.  The  most  important  chemi- 
cal constituents  are  the  proteids:  haemoglobin,  serum  albumin, 
serum  globulin,  nucleo-albumin,  albumoses,  peptone,  lecithin  and 
protagon;  the  fats:  stearin,  palmatin  and  olein;  the  carbohydrates: 
grape  sugar  and  glycogen;  the  pigments:  haemoglobin  and  bili- 
rubin; and  the  salts:  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesia,  iron 
and  ammonium  combined  with  chlorine,  carbonic  acid,  phosphoric 
acid  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  potassium  salts  are  contained  in  the 
blood-cells,  the  sodium  salts  in  the  blood-serum.  In  herbivora  the 
carbonates,  in  carnivora  the  phosphates,  predominate. 

The  quantity  of  the  blood  is  equal  to  about  one-thirteenth  of 
the  body  weight;  the  relative  amount  is  greatest  in  the  horse  (one- 


62  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tenth)  and  least  in  swine  (one-twentieth).  The  distribution  of  the 
blood  is  of  importance  in  therapeutics.  While  the  body  is  at  rest 
one-fourth  of  the  blood  is  contained  in  each  of  the  following  sec- 
tions: the  heart  and  large  blood-vessels;  the  liver;  the  muscles;  the 
other  organs;  but  during  work  the  muscles  contain  up  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  quantity. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — The  quantity,  composition  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  blood  in  disease  can  be  affected  in  very  different 
ways.  The  dietetic  method  supplies  to  the  diseased  blood  blood- 
forming  substances  (blood  plastics)  of  all  kinds  (proteids,  iron, 
salts).  The  chemical  method  combats  infectious  agents  contained 
in  the  blood  by  the  introduction  of  arsenical  preparations  into  the 
blood  stream  (chemotherapy);  senun  therapy  acts  in  the  same 
manner.  The  mechanical  method  seeks  to  influence  blood  forma- 
tion indirectly  by  systematic  stimulation  of  the  muscles  (muscle 
therapy,  training,  massage).  The  operative  method  consists  in 
the  introduction  of  fresh,  healthy  blood  (transfusion)  and  the 
removal  of  diseased  blood  (phlebotomy). 

Transfusion,  z.e.,  the  direct  or  indirect  transfer  of  blood  from  a 
healthy  individual  to  the  blood  stream  of  a  diseased  individual, 
appears  theoretically  to  be  very  rational.  In  practice,  however, 
it  has  not  proven  satisfactory.  The  transfusion  of  non-defibrin- 
ated  blood  is  dangerous  to  life  (fibrin  emboli),  and  the  transfusion 
of  defibrinated  blood  has  at  times  been  attended  with  serious 
disturbances  (rigors,  albuminuria,  anaphylaxis).  The  effects  of 
the  transfusion  of  animal  blood  (lamb's  blood)  into  man  consist  of 
hyperaemia  and  serous  infiltration  of  the  internal  parts  of  the  body, 
high  transfusion  fever  and  a  change  in  the  composition  of  the 
blood.  Experience  in  human  medicine  has  also  taught  that  the 
danger  from  excessive  bleeding  is  not  so  much  from  the  decrease  of 
red  blood-cells  as  from  the  volume  of  the  blood  being  insufficient  to 
fill  the  heart  and  vessels,  and  for  this  reason  the  injection  of  a 
simple  physiological  salt  solution,  subcutaneously  or  intravenously, 
will  save  life  in  such  cases. 

In  regard  to  the  effect  of  phlebotomy  on  the  blood,  practical 
experience  and  scientific  investigation  are  not  in  accord.    Small, 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  63 

daily  bleedings  are  supposed  to  stimulate  blood  formation  and 
increase  the  red  blood-cells  in  chlorosis  of  man.  Some  have 
reported  unfavorable  results  from  phlebotomy  in  anaemia.  The 
only  undisputed  indication  for  phlebotomy  is  plethora. 

DIETETIC  METHOD.    BLOOD-FORMING  REMEDIES.    BLOOD 

PLASTICS 
Synonjnns:  Haematics,  haematopoietics,  haematinics,  erythrotics,  hyperi- 
notics,  euplastics. 

Actions. — Blood-forming  agents  may  act  directly  or  indirectly. 

1.  The  direct  blood  plastics  are  substances  which  are  normal 
constituents  of  the  blood:  albumin,  peptone,  iron,  potassium  salts, 
sodium  chloride,  phosphates,  sulphur,  meat  extract,  fat.  They 
supply  directly  to  the  blood  the  constituents  which  are  absent  in 
disease. 

2.  The  indirect  blood  plastics  are  not  normal  constituents  of  the 
blood,  but  improve  the  condition  of  the  blood  by  increasing  me- 
tabolism, assimilation  and  nutrition.  The  most  important  indirect 
blood  plastic  is  arsenic.  Others  are  alcohol,  phosphorus,  and  mer- 
cury in  very  small  doses,  and  the  alkalies. 

In  practice,  it  is  important  that  the  blood  plastics  be  adminis- 
tered in  a  form  which  can  be  readily  absorbed  and  in  small,  re- 
peated doses.  The  iron  salts  and  arsenic  especially  are  to  be  given 
with  great  care  as  to  the  dosage. 

Drugs. — 1.  Ferrum.  Iron.  The  principal  remedy  in  anaemia, 
hydraemia  and  leukaemia.  The  preparations  most  commonly  used 
in  veterinary  medicine  are:  ferri  reductum  (reduced  iron),  ferri 
sulphas,  *tinctura  ferri  pomata  (N.F.).  The  numerous  newer  and 
more  costly  iron  preparations,  and  also  the  new  albumin  prepara- 
tions, are  not  necessary  in  veterinary  medicine.  Dose  of  reduced 
iron  and  iron  sulphate  for  horses  and  cattle,  1-5,  grs.  xv  to  3i; 
dogs,  0.02-0.2,  grs.  J^  to  iij;  sheep,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv.  Dose  of 
tincture  ferri  pomata  for  dogs,  10  to  20  drops.  Concerning  the 
absorption  of  iron  preparations,  see  text-books  on  pharmacology. 

2.  *Meat  extract.  This  acts  as  a  haematopoietic  by  supplying 
blood  salts,  potassium  salts  and  phosphates.  Dose  for  dog,  2-10, 
5ss  to  5ijss. 


64  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

3.  Potassii  bicarbonas.  Potassium  bicarbonate  is  used  as  a 
blood  plastic  in  anaemia.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  25-100,  5vj 
to  5  iij ;  sheep,  2-5,  5  ss  to  j ;  dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 

4.  Sodii  chloridum  and  sodii  phosphas.  Sodium  chloride  and 
sodiimi  phosphate  are  used  as  blood  plastics  in  chronic  disturb- 
ances of  nutrition.     Doses  same  as  potassium  bicarbonate. 

5.  Sulphur  sublimatum,  sulphur  praecipitatum,  sulphur  lotum. 
Sulphur  is  used  as  a  blood  plastic  in  specific  blood  diseases.  Dose 
for  horses  and  cattle,  2-5,  3ss  to  3j;  sheep,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv; 
dogs,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  ^A  to  iij. 

6.  Arseni  trioxidmn.  Arsenic.  A  valuable  blood  plastic  in  all 
blood  diseases  and  chronic  disturbances  of  nutrition.  Dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  jss  to  vij;  sheep,  0.005-0.01,  gr. 
3/40  to  1/8;  dogs,  0.001-0.005,  gr.  1/70  to  3/40.  The  dose  of 
liquor  potassii  arsenitis  (Fowler's  solution)  for  horses  and  cattle  is 
10-50,  5ijss  to  xij;  sheep,  0.2-0.5,  irjiiij  to  vij;  dogs,  0.1-0.2,  n^jss 
to  iij. 

III.  General    Therapeutics    of    Diseases    of    the    Blood- 
vessels 

Pathology. — The  diseases  of  the  blood-vessels  which  call  for 
therapeutic  interference  are  wounds  and  tears  or  ruptures  (arterial, 
venous  and  capillary  hemorrhage),  circulatory  disturbances 
(anaemia,  active  and  passive  hypersemia,  thrombi,  emboli),  inflam- 
mation (arteritis,  phlebitis),  dilatations  (varices,  aneurisms)  and 
neoplasms  (angiomas,  endotheliomas).  The  pathological  changes 
may  involve  the  vessel  walls,  the  vasomotor  nervous  system  or  the 
vessel  contents,  i.e.,  the  blood  (quantity,  distribution,  property, 
coagulation,  blood-pressure,  circulation). 

Physiology. — Of  the  three  layers  of  the  blood-vessel  wall  the 
most  important  is  the  middle  one,  the  muscular  layer,  which  is  the 
motor  organ  for  the  constriction  of  the  vessel.  This  layer  is  absent 
from  the  capillaries,  the  walls  of  which  consist  of  only  contractile 
endothelial  cells.  The  nerves  of  the  vessels  (vasomotors)  are 
situated  centrally  as  well  as  peripherally.  The  principal  vessel 
centre  (vasomotor  centre)  is  located  in  the  medulla  oblongata; 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  65 

there  are  additional  centres  in  the  spinal  cord.  The  peripheral 
nerves  which  are  connected  with  these  centres  possess  in  part  the 
function  of  contracting  (vasoconstrictors,  pressors)  and  in  part 
of  dilating  (vasodilators,  depressors)  the  blood-vessels.  The 
peripheral  vessels  also  appear  to  possess  independent  vasomotor 
ganglion  cells. 

The  vasomotor  nervous  apparatus  can  be  stimulated  or  de- 
pressed by  agents  acting  centrically  or  peripherally.  The  direct 
centric  stimulants  (vasoconstrictors)  are  digitalis,  strychnine, 
nicotine  and  carbon  dioxide;  insuflScient  oxygen  in  the  blood  has 
the  same  effect.  The  depressants  or  vasodilators  are  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform  and  amyl  nitrite.  Contraction  and  dilation  of 
the  vessels  are  also  produced  directly  or  indirectly  (reflexly)  by 
different  agents  acting  peripherally  (mechanical,  chemical,  thermic, 
and  electrical  stimuli  appUed  to  the  skin  or  mucous  membranes). 
Adrenalin  is  believed  by  some  to  cause  vasoconstriction  by  centric 
stimulation,  others  attribute  its  action  to  a  peripheral  stimulant 
effect  upon  the  vessels. 

Contraction  of  the  vessels  increases  while  dilatation  decreases  the 
blood-pressure.  The  normal  blood-pressure  in  the  carotid  artery 
is  equivalent  to  150  millimetres  of  mercury;  in  the  aorta  to  200  to 
250  millimetres.  The  greatest  increase  in  blood-pressure  is  pro- 
duced by  increase  of  the  heart  action  and  contraction  of  the  blood- 
vessels simultaneously  (digitalis,  strophanthus).  An  increase  in 
blood-pressure  also  occurs  when  areas  supplied  by  the  larger  vessels 
are  shut  off  from  the  circulation  and  when  there  is  any  interference 
with  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  larger  arteries  (insufliciency 
of  the  aortic  valves,  thrombosis  of  the  pelvic  or  femoral  arteries). 
In  the  latter  conditions  the  continued  high  blood-pressure  results 
in  a  compensatory  hypertrophy  of  the  heart. 

The  rate  of  flow  of  the  blood  in  the  carotid  artery  of  the  horse 
is,  on  the  average,  300  millimetres.  It  is  dependent  upon  the 
activity  of  the  heart,  the  contraction  of  the  blood-vessels  and  the 
depth  of  respiration  (aspiratory  effect  of  deep  inspiration). 

The  causes  of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood  have  not  been  satis- 
factorily explained.  The  fibrin  which  is  in  solution  in  the  blood 
5 


66  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

may  be  precipitated  as  a  calcium-albumin  compound  through  the 
cooperation  of  three  factors:  1.  Fibrin  ferment  (a  product  of  the 
decomposition  of  white  blood-cells).  2.  The  fibrinogens.  3. 
The  fibrinoplastic  substances:    fibrinogen  and  paraglobulin. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — ^Wounds  and  the  consequent  hemor- 
rhage are  the  conditions  which  most  frequently  affect  the  blood- 
vessels, and  for  this  reason  the  method  of  arresting  hemorrhage 
will  first  be  considered.  Other  therapeutic  methods  are  concerned 
with  the  contraction  and  dilation  of  the  blood-vessels  (see  also  the 
antiphlogistic  and  resorbent  methods). 

1.  METHODS  OF  ARRESTING  HEMORRHAGE 
Spontaneous  Arrest  of  Hemorrhage. — By  this  is  understood 
the  cessation  of  bleeding  as  a  result  of  a  natural  process,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  artificial  arrest  of  hemorrhage  by  therapeutic 
measures.  It  is  especially  observed  in  capillary  and  parenchy- 
matous hemorrhage,  and  also  occurs  when  small  arteries  and  veins 
are  wounded.  It  is  due  principally  to  the  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
but  retraction  of  the  vessel  wall  and  narrowing  of  the  lumen  of  the 
vessel  are  also  important  factors.  The  coagulation  of  the  blood 
forms  a  thrombus,  which  closes  the  opening  in  the  vessel  and  some- 
times extends  into  the  interior.  As  the  blood-pressure  is  very  low 
in  the  capillaries  and  small  veins,  the  formation  of  thrombi  and  the 
resulting  arrest  of  hemorrhage  can  occur  very  quickly.  But  in 
large  vessels,  especially  arteries,  thrombi  are  not  formed  at  all  or 
only  when  the  heart  has  become  weak  and  the  blood-pressure  has 
been  considerably  lowered  by  severe  hemorrhage,  so  that  the 
coagulated  blood  is  not  washed  away  by  the  outpouring  blood. 
In  severe  hemorrhage  the  blood,  in  an  effort  to  rehabilitate  itself, 
takes  up  numerous  white  blood-corpuscles,  which  increase  its 
coagulability  and  thus  assist  in  the  spontaneous  arrest  of  bleeding. 
This  is  the  explanation  of  the  fact,  established  experimentally, that 
stallions  castrated  without  any  precautions  against  bleeding  do  not 
die  from  loss  of  blood.  Generally,  however,  not  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  total  quantity  of  blood  can  be  lost  without  causing 
fatal  cardiac  and  cerebral  paralysis.     The  blood  regenerates  itself 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  67 

quantitatively  rather  rapidly  by  the  resorption  of  the  lymph  con- 
tained in  the  tissues  and  the  fluids  present  in  the  stomach  and 
intestines.  The  new-formed  blood  is  at  first  very  rich  in  water, 
while  the  red  blood-corpuscles  are  few  in  number.  The  latter  are 
replaced  slowly. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  processes  concerned  in  the  formation  of 
the  thrombus  is  not  entirely  understood.  In  the  spontaneous 
arrest  of  hemorrhage  a  white  thrombus  is  generally  present,  formed 
by  the  aggregation  of  white  blood-corpuscles  and  blood-platelets, 
and  differing  essentially  from  the  usual  products  of  coagulation, 
which  consist  of  fibrin  inside  or  outside  of  the  body.  The  subse- 
quent history  of  the  white  thrombus  varies,  depending  upon 
whether  infectious  materials  gain  entrance  to  it  or  not.  If  it  remains 
free  from  infection,  organization  takes  place;  i.e.j  a  firm  connective 
tissue  develops,  which  is  supplied  with  nutrient  vessels,  and  which 
closes  the  wounded  vessel  with  a  solid  and  permanent  cicatrix. 
The  cells  of  the  thrombus  do  not  actively  participate  in  the  process; 
they  play  only  a  passive  role,  being  gradually  repressed  by  the  new- 
formed  tissue.  The  formation  of  new  connective  tissue  results 
from  the  growth  of  the  vessel  endothelium.  The  endothelial  cells 
of  the  intima  proliferate  and  are  transformed  into  spindle-shaped 
and  variously  formed  cells  which  extend  toward  the  centre  of  the 
thrombus,  grow  into  it  and  around  it,  and  later  are  changed  into 
fibrillar  connective-tissue  cells,  the  thrombus  being  thus  finally 
compressed  and  replaced  by  firm  connective  tissue.  At  the  same 
time,  as  a  result  of  budding  of  the  vasa  vasorum,  new  vessels  are 
formed  in  the  thrombus  and  it  becomes  vascularized.  About  four 
weeks  after  the  injury,  in  the  smaller  vessels,  the  thrombus  is  trans- 
formed into  a  mass  of  cicatricial  connective  tissue  permeated  with 
capillaries,  which  subsequently  becomes  more  solid  in  consequence 
of  contraction  and  the  atrophy  of  the  newly  formed  blood-vessels. 
More  rarely,  calcification  of  the  thrombus  occurs  (so-called  vein 
stones  or  phleboliths).  The  interruption  to  the  circulation  result- 
ing from  the  thrombus  is  overcome  by  the  establishment  of  a  col- 
lateral circulation  while  the  arterial  branches  situated  centrally  and 
peripherally  to  the  thrombus  and  their  vasa  vasorum  are  dilated. 


68  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Sometimes  a  passage  for  the  blood  is  later  opened  through  the 
centre  of  the  organized  thrombus,  or  the  blood-vessels  of  the  cica- 
trix become  dilated  and  permit  the  blood  to  flow  through. 

Artificial  Arrest  of  Hemorrhage. — This  aims  to  close  the  bleed- 
ing blood-vessel  either  by  pressure  or  by  aiding  coagulation.  The 
most  important  methods  used  for  this  purpose  are: 

(a)  Ligation  of  Bleeding  Vessels. — The  ligature  is  the  only 
thing  which  will  quickly  and  surely  stop  bleeding  from  the  larger 
arteries  and  veins.  The  bleeding  vessel  is  grasped  with  clamp 
forceps  and  tied  with  silk  thread.  If  the  vessel  cannot  be  isolated, 
then  the  tissue  surrounding  it  is  included  in  the  ligature  (ligation 
en  masse),  a  needle  being  used  to  carry  the  thread  around  through 
the  tissues.  When  neither  of  these  methods  is  applicable  because 
of  the  deep  situation  of  the  bleeding  vessel,  then  the  ligature  must 
be  placed  at  some  accessible  point  situated  centripetal  to  the  point 
of  hemorrhage  (ligation  by  continuity);  e.g.,  in  hemorrhage 
from  one  of  the  arteries  in  the  interior  of  the  head  the  carotid 
is  ligated. 

(b)  Compression  of  the  Vessels  by  Suture  or  Bandage, 
as  a  rule,  checks  parenchymatous  and  capillary  hemorrhage.  Some- 
times strong  pressure  upon  the  bleeding  vessels  can  be  obtained 
by  tamponading  a  wound.  Bleeding  may  be  checked  tempo- 
rarily by  pressure  with  the  fingers  or  hand  (digital  compression),  or 
by  applying  an  elastic  tubing  (Esmarch  bandage)  or  a  rubber 
bandage  (Martinis  bandage)  between  the  wound  and  the  heart. 
Methods  of  arresting  hemorrhage  peculiar  to  veterinary  medicine 
are  the  use  of  clamps  and  of  the  emasculator  in  castration.  The 
formerly  employed  tourniquet  (a  compress  fastened  with  a  girdle) 
and  the  so-called  acupressure  (compression  by  a  needle  inserted  in 
the  tissues  in  a  transverse  direction,  laterally  and  above  or  below 
the  bleeding  vessel)  are  now  scarcely  used. 

(c)  Torsion  of  the  Bleeding  Vessel  loosens  the  intima  and 
media,  which  roll  inward,  and  also  draws  the  adventitia  together, 
narrowing  or  closing  the  lumen  of  the  vessel.  Torsion  is  carried  out 
in  two  ways:  the  bleeding  vessel  is  grasped  with  the  clamp  forceps 
and  revolved  on  its  axis  for  some  time,  or  the  surrounding  soft 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  69 

parts,  including  the  vessel,  are  twisted  (torsion  of  the  spermatic 
cord). 

(d)  Heat  in  the  form  of  the  hot  iron  or  the  thermo-cautery  is 
an  effective  haemostatic  in  many  cases  of  parenchymatous  hemor- 
rhage. The  opening  in  the  bleeding  vessel  is  closed  by  a  scab, 
which  acts  as  an  aseptic  bandage  (cautery  in  amputation  of  the 
tail).  Cold  (ice,  cold  water,  ether  spray)  is  less  reliable;  it  checks 
hemorrhage  by  contracting  and  narrowing  the  small  blood-vessels. 
Hot  water  at  a  temperature  of  45  to  50°  C.  is  recommended  as  a 
good  haemostatic  for  parenchymatous  bleeding.  Even  hve  steam, 
100  to  120°  C.  (?),  has  been  directed  into  the  uterine  cavity  for 
several  minutes  in  persistent  hemorrhage  from  the  uterus  in  woman 
(so-called  vaporization  of  the  uterus,  atmocausis,  zestocausis). 

(e)  Drugs  (haemostatics,  styptics,  antihemorrhagics,  astrin- 
gents, agglutinatives,  rophetics)  are  used  in  external  parenchy- 
matous and  in  internal  hemorrhages.  They  are  ineffective  in 
external  arterial  and  venous  hemorrhages;  in  these  cases  surgical 
methods  (ligature,  compression)  are  of  greater  service.  The  mode 
of  action  of  the  styptics  differs  with  the  different  drugs.  Some 
cause  a  contraction  of  blood-vessels,  with  narrowing  of  the  lumen, 
by  direct  action  upon  the  muscular  layer  of  the  blood-vessel  wall. 
In  this  way,  for  example,  nitrate  of  silver  reduces  the  lumen  one- 
half.  The  contraction  of  the  vessels  reduces  the  amount  of  blood, 
slows  the  circulation  and  finally  causes  stasis.  Other  drugs  arrest 
hemorrhage  by  causing  coagulation  of  the  blood,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, and  closing  the  lumen  of  the  bleeding  vessel  by  the  resulting 
thrombus.  The  solution  of  chloride  of  iron  acts  in  this  way. 
Some  drugs  operate  in  both  ways;  e.g.j  tannic  acid  and  ergot. 
Blood  coagulation  is  also  favored  by  decrease  of  blood-pressure. 
Some  drugs  act  in  a  purely  mechanical  way  by  agglutinating  the 
bleeding  surface  (agglutinative  styptics),  or  by  absorbing  the 
blood  (rophetic  or  spongy  styptics,  e.g.y  sponge).  For  practical 
purposes  styptics  are  divided  into  two  groups:  local  and  general. 

1.  Local  or  topical  styptics  serve  to  arrest  hemorrhage  upon  the 
skin,  accessible  mucous  membranes  and,  when  administered  by 
inhalation,  in  the  lungs.     The  most  important  are:  solution  of 


70  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

ferric  chloride,  tannic  acid,  nitrate  of  silver,  chloride  of  zinc,  lead 
acetate,  alum,  antipyrine,  adrenalin  (suprarenin),  creolin,  creosote, 
oil  of  turpentine,  ether  and  acetic  acid.  To  this  group  also  belong 
the  agglutinative  styptics:  acacia,  tragacanth,  colophony,  col- 
lodion, starch,  chalk  and  plaster  of  Paris;  also  the  rophetic  styptics: 
sponges,  absorbent  cotton  and  pengamar  djambi  (long,  silky  hairs 
from  East  Indian  ferns,  official  in  Austria  as  palese  hsemostatica) 
which  were  formerly  much  used  but  which  have  become  obsolete 
since  the  introduction  of  asepsis. 

2.  General  styptics  operate  internally  after  absorption  into  the 
blood.  The  most  important  are  ergot,  hydrastis,  lead  acetate, 
tannic  acid  and  alum.  Digitalis,  adrenalin  (suprarenin),  oil  of 
turpentine  and  other  ethereal  oils,  acids  and  sodium  chloride  also 
operate  internally  as  haemostatics.  Subcutaneous  injections  of 
white  gelatin,  which  is  recommended  as  a  general  styptic,  should 
be  used  with  caution  (tetanic  convulsions  in  man).  The  internal 
styptics  are  employed  in  hemorrhages  from  the  uterus,  kidneys, 
bladder,  intestines,  stomach,  liver,  spleen,  lungs  and  brain.  In' 
gastric  and  intestinal  hemorrhages  the  action  of  most  of  these  is, 
strictly  speaking,  a  local  one  (tannic  acid,  lead  acetate,  alum,  sul- 
phate of  iron,  solution  of  ferric  chloride).  In  general,  the  action  of 
the  internal  styptics  is  very  uncertain,  except  the  effect  of  ergot 
and  hydrastis  upon  hemorrhage  from  the  uterus. 

Drugs. — 1.  Ergota.  Ergot.  Specific  against  uterine  hemorrhage. 
[Dose  of  fluidextractum  ergotae  for  horses  and  cattle,  15-30,  5  ss 
to  5i;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  4-8,  5j  to  ij;  dogs,  2-4,  3ss  to  j.] 

2.  Hydrastis.  A  specific  against  hemorrhages  from  the  uterus 
and  abdominal  organs.  [Dose  of  fluidextractum  hydrastis  for 
horses  and  cattle,  8-30,  3ij  to  Si;  sheep  and  swine,  4-8,  5i  to  ij; 
dogs,  0.3-4,  TTjv  to  5i.] 

3.  Acidum  tannicum.  Tannic  acid  or  tannin.  A  styptic  in 
gastric,  intestinal  and  renal  hemorrhage;  external  haemostatic. 
Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  5-25,  5i  to  vj ;  sheep  and  goats,  1-2,  grs. 
XV  to  XXX ;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  iss  to  vij.  Quercus,  cinchona, 
krameria,  *tormentilla,  uva  ursi,  *catechu  and  galla  have  the 
same  action. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  71 

4.  Plumbi  acetas.  Lead  acetate.  A  good  haemostatic  in 
gastric  hemorrhage.  Used  empirically  in  hemorrhage  from  the 
lungs,  kidneys,  bladder  and  uterus.  Dose  for  horses,  2-10,  5ss  to 
ijss;  cattle,  1-5,  grs.  xv  to  5i;  dogs,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  34  to  iij. 

5.  Alumen.  Alum.  A  styptic  in  intestinal  hemorrhage. 
Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  10-25,  5  ijss  to  vj;  dogs,  0.5-2,  grs. 
vij  to  XXX. 

6.  Liquor  ferri  chloridi.  Solution  of  chloride  of  iron.  Exter- 
nal styptic,  undiluted,  or  with  collodion  1  :  10,  upon  wounds;  1  to  5 
per  cent,  solution  in  water  on  mucous  membranes;  in  J^  per  cent, 
solution  by  inhalation  in  hemorrhage  from  the  lungs.  Internally, 
in  gastric  hemorrhage,  freely  diluted. 

7.  *Creolin.  External  styptic  in  operations  in  3  per  cent,  solution. 

2.  VASOMOTOR  STIMULANTS.    DRUGS  THAT  CONTRACT 
BLOOD-VESSELS 

Synonyms:    Angiosthenics,  vaso-astringents,  vaso-constringents. 

Actions. — ^A  contraction  of  the  blood-vessels  (arteries,  capil- 
laries, veins)  can  be  produced  by  influences  acting  either  upon  the 
nerves,  the  musculature  of  the  vessels,  or  the  blood.  The  various 
organs  concerned  are  the  vasomotor  centre  in  the  medulla  oblon- 
gata, similar  centres  in  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  peripheral  vaso- 
constrictor nerves;  all  of  which  can  be  stimulated  directly  and 
reflexly.  Contraction  of  the  blood-vessels  causes  a  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  blood  in  the  tissues  they  supply  and  an  increase  in  the 
blood-pressure.  Other  vasoconstrictor  drugs  act  by  coagulating 
the  blood  or  by  withdrawing  fluid.  Vasomotor  constrictors  are 
divided  into  two  groups :  external  and  internal.  The  most  impor- 
tant external  vasoconstrictors  are  silver  nitrate,  lead  acetate, 
copper  sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  zinc  chloride,  bichloride  of  mercury, 
iron  sulphate,  alum,  tannic  acid,  adrenalin  (suprarenin),  chalk 
and  also  mild  cutaneous  irritants.  The  most  important  internal 
vasoconstrictors  are  ergot,  hydrastis,  digitalis,  caffeine  strophan- 
thus  [atropine,  strychnine  and  cocaine]. 

Uses. — The  vasomotor  stimulants  are  used  to  arrest  hemor- 
rhage (see  previous  chapter);  to  overcome  hypersemia,  stasis  and 


72  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

other  circulatory  disturbances  in  external  and  internal  organs;  to 
combat  swellings,  exudations,  transudations,  catarrhs,  polyuria, 
ptyalism  and  hyperhidrosis;  in  the  treatment  of  aneurisms,  vari- 
cose veins  and  angiomas;  to  increase  blood-pressure,  and  in  the 
treatment  of  cardiac  weakness.  (See  also  chapters  on  astringents 
and  antiphlogistics.) 

Drugs. — 1.  Argenti  nitras.  Silver  nitrate.  The  strongest 
astringent  in  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes; 
best  remedy  in  ulcers  and  bums;  used  in  5  to  10  per  cent,  solution 
in  water  or  alcohol;  as  a  salve,  1  :  10;  in  substance  in  pencil  form; 
also  in  3^  to  2  per  cent,  solution  as  an  eye  water. 

2.  Zinci  sulphas.  Zinc  sulphate.  Important  astringent  in  the 
treatment  of  eye  diseases;  used  in  J^  to  2  per  cent,  solution  in 
water  (conjunctivitis).  On  other  mucous  membranes  it  is  used  in 
1  to  5  per  cent,  solution.  In  inflammatory  and  eczematous  condi- 
tions of  the  skin,  zinc  sulphate  and  zinc  oxide  are  used  in  the  form 
of  the  powder  and  ointment. 

3.  Liquor  plumbi  subacetatis  dilutus.  Lead  water.  Goulard's 
water.  Frequently  used  as  an  astringent  in  inflammation  of  the 
skin,  bums,  eczema  and  catarrhs  of  mucous  membranes. 

4.  Cupri  sulphas.  Copper  sulphate.  Astringent  in  diseases  of 
the  eye  and  in  foot  rot. 

*Adrenalin. — ^A  constituent  of  the  suprarenals  which  has 
vasoconstrictor  properties  and  which  acts  locally  in  a  dilution 
of  one  to  ten  million.  Used  locally;  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of 
adrenalin  chloride  in  physiological  salt  solution  (1: 1000). 

For  other  vasomotor  stimulants  see  the  previous  chapter  on 
haemostatics;  also  chapters  on  astringents  and  antiphlogistics. 

3.  VASODILATORS.    AGENTS  THAT  DILATE  BLOOD-VESSELS 

Synonyms:    Angio-asthenics,  vasodilatants. 

Actions  and  Uses. — ^The  vasodilators  produce  a  dilation  of  the 
blood-vessels  by  causing  a  relaxation  of  the  blood-vessel  wall 
through  depressing  or  paralyzing  the  vasoconstrictors  or  stimulat- 
ing the  vasodilators.  They  bring  about  an  increased  supply  of 
blood,  decrease  of  blood-pressure,  slowing  of  the  circulation,  and, 
after  prolonged  action,  stasis  of  blood  with  transudation  of  serum. 


DISEASES  OP  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  73 

The  most  important  vasodilators  are  amyl  nitrite,  sodium  nitrite, 
nitroglycerin,  morphine,  chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  potassimn 
bromide,  alcohol,  ether,  some  of  the  ethereal  oils;  also  heat  and 
powerful  cutaneous  irritants. 

The  practical  use  of  the  vasodilators  is  very  limited  in  veteri- 
nary medicine.  They  are  prescribed,  for  instance,  in  cerebral 
anaemia  (syncope),  and  also  in  some  brain  diseases  which  are  attrib- 
uted to  a  circumscribed  vascular  spasm  in  the  brain,  as  in  eclamp- 
sia and  epilepsy.  They  are  recommended  in  nervous  asthma  of 
the  dog  (nitroglycerin).  In  human  medicine,  the  vasodilators 
are  also  prescribed  in  spasm  of  the  coronary  arteries  of  the  heart 
designated  as  angina  pectoris. 

Drugs. — 1.  Amylis  nitris.  Amyl  nitrite.  May  be  given 
experimentally  in  eclampsia  of  suckling  bitches;  also  by  inhalation 
in  asthma.     [Dose  for  dogs,  0.03-0.2;  tt^1/3  to  iij.] 

2.  Nitroglycerin.  The  same.  [Dose  of  spiritus  glycerylis 
nitratis,  formerly  spiritus  glonoini,  for  dogs,  0.06-0.13,  tti^j  to  ij.] 

3.  Sodii  nitris.    The  same.    Dose  for  dogs,  0.1-1,  grs.  iss  to  xv. 
For  other  drugs,  see  the  chapter  on  sedative  neurotics. 

IV.  General  Therapeutics  of  the  Exudates  and  Transu- 
dates.    Resorbents 

Pathology. — The  diseased  conditions  in  which  the  resorbents 
are  indicated  are  solid  and  fluid  inflammatory  exudates,  blood 
extravasations,  transudates,  cedemas  in  the  body  cavities  and 
tissues,  and  inflammatory  swellings  and  thickenings  of  the  skin, 
subcutis,  tendons,  tendon  sheaths,  muscle,  periosteum,  bones  and 
lymph  glands.  Hyperplasia  of  the  thyroids  (goitre)  and  of  the 
lymph  glands,  actinomycosis,  sediments,  poisons  and  obesity  are 
also  treated  with  resorbents.  On  the  other  hand,  true  neoplasms, 
as  carcinomas,  sarcomas,  lipomas  and  fibromas,  cannot  be  removed 
with  resorbents. 

Physiology. — ^The  removal  of  collections  of  pathological  fluids 
and  of  other  pathological  products  from  the  organs  and  tissues 
results  from  the  operation  of  the  physiological  processes  concerned 
in  the  normal  resorption  of  lymph  and  parenchjnnatous  fluids. 


74:  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

These  complicated  processes  are  dependent  upon  the  laws  of 
filtration,  diffusion,  capillarity,  imbibition  and  phagocytosis. 
Primarily  concerned  in  the  processes  are  the  blood  and  lymph 
vessels  and  the  white  blood-corpuscles,  while  normal  resorp- 
tion is  influenced  secondarily  by  cardiac  activity  (blood- 
pressure),  respiration  (blood  aspiration)  and  exercise  (muscular 
contraction). 

The  physiological  activity  of  the  blood  and  lymph  vessels  in 
resorption  takes  place  in  the  capillaries  and  at  the  origin  of  the 
lymph  vessels  (interstitial  and  perivascular  lymph  spaces  and 
canals,  lymph  stomata).  The  dissolved  constituents  of  the  lymph 
and  parenchymatous  fluids  are  absorbed  into  the  blood  and  lymph 
channels  according  to  physical  laws.  Active  blood  circulation, 
increased  blood-pressure,  accelerated  cardiac  action  and  a  decrease 
in  the  quantity  of  the  blood  exert  a  favorable  influence  by  increas- 
ing the  filtration  pressure.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  aspiratory 
effect  of  respiration  upon  the  blood  stimulates  the  circulation,  while 
the  respiratory  movements  of  the  diaphragm  markedly  stimulate 
the  resorbent  activity  of  the  diaphragmatic  pleura  and  of  the  peri- 
toneum (lymph  stomata).  Finally,  the  activity  of  the  muscles 
and  their  coverings  (f ascise,  aponeuroses)  exerts  a  great  influence  on 
physiological  resorption  through  their  continued  alternate  con- 
traction and  relaxation  (pressure  and  aspiration). 

In  addition  to  the  resorbent  mechanism  of  the  blood  and  lymph 
vessels,  the  white  blood-corpuscles  play  an  important  role  in  resorp- 
tion. Their  part  consists  in  taking  up  the  undissolved  constituents 
of  the  lymph  and  parenchymatous  fluids  (phagocytosis)  and  on 
the  decomposition  and  solution  of  solid  tissue  masses  (histol- 
ysis). The  phagocytic  and  digestive  activity  of  the  leucocytes 
is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  resorption  of  pathological 
products. 

The  degree  of  the  resorption  activity  of  the  individual  organs  is 
very  different.  Resorption  is  very  rapid  and  intense  through  the 
serous  membranes  with  their  thin  layer  of  endothelium,  their 
numerous  lymph  stomata  and  the  underlying  extensive  plexuses 
of  blood  and  lymph  vessels  (pleura,  peritoneum,  pericardium,  pia 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  75 

mater,  synovial  membranes  of  the  articulations  and  tendon  sheaths, 
tunica  vaginalis,  iris).  Even  more  pronounced  is  the  resorption 
power  of  the  lungs  with  their  extraordinary  superficial  area,  their 
very  rich  supply  of  blood  and  lymph  vessels,  the  thin  epithelium 
of  the  alveoli  with  the  numerous  stomata,  and  the  continuous 
aspiratory  effect  of  their  inspiratory  activity.  The  resorption 
activity  of  the  mucous  membranes  differs  with  their  anatomical 
structure.  It  is  most  active  in  mucous  membranes  with  ciHated 
(trachea,  bronchi)  and  cylindrical  epithelium  (intestines,  pyloric 
portion  of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane,  uterus) ;  less  active  in 
mucous  membranes  with  pavement  epithelium  (mouth,  pharynx, 
oesophagus,  cardiac  portion  of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane, 
bladder).  The  capacity  for  resorption  is  least  in  the  unbroken 
skin,  which  is  only  permeable  to  volatile  substances  (ether,  alcohol, 
ethereal  and  alcoholic  solutions,  chloroform,  carbolic  acid,  ethereal 
oils  and  mercury),  and  also  for  fats  (salves)  and  soaps  when  they 
are  rubbed  in  under  pressure.  On  the  other  hand,  the  exposed 
rete  malpighii  and  corium,  with  their  extensive  system  of  lymph 
and  blood  vessels,  possess  high  resorption  powers.  This  is  also 
true  of  muscle  and  connective  tissue. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — Fluid  and  solid  pathological  products 
may  be  removed  by  supporting  or  assisting  the  physiological  proc- 
esses of  resorption  by  mechanical,  thermic,  chemical  (medicines) 
and  electrical  methods,  or  by  operative  interference.  In  addition, 
dietetic,  specific  and  indirect  (derivative)  methods  may  also  be 
employed.  Those  most  used  are  the  dietetic,  mechanical  (exer- 
cise, massage),  medical  (resorbent,  rubifacient,  derivative  and 
specific  drugs)  and  operative  methods. 

The  dietetic  method  seeks  to  bring  about  the  resorption  of 
pathological  collections  by  withholding  food  (hunger  cure)  and 
water  (dry  cure),  by  regulating  the  relative  proportion  of  nutritive 
substances  (reducing  treatment)  and  by  increasing  metabolism 
(work). 

The  mechanical  methods  are,  principally,  exercise  and  massage 
(see  those  chapters). 

One  of  the  important  surgical  methods  is  the  artificial  pro- 


76  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

duction  of  hypersemia  and  inflammation  by  the  application  of 
irritant  ointments  and  by  firing  (see  that  chapter). 

The  derivative  method  consists  of  the  employment  of  cathartics 
(eserine,  aloes,  salts),  sialagogues  and  diaphoretics  (arecoline, 
pilocarpine),  and  diuretics  (digitalis,  strophanthus,  diuretin, 
agurin). 

Specific  resorbents  are  iodine  and  potassium  iodide  (goitre, 
actinomycosis),  mercury  and  salvarsan  (syphilis  in  man);  also  the 
chemical  antidotes  for  poisons. 

The  operative  methods  consist  in  removing  pathological  fluids 
by  puncture  and  incision,  phlebotomy,  etc. 

The  following  group  of  medicines  are  usually  given  the  special 
designation  of  resorbents  in  general  therapeutics,  although  the  mode 
of  action  of  the  individual  drugs  is  in  many  instances  very- 
different. 

RESORBING  MEDICINES.    RESORBENTS 

Sjmonyms:  Resolvents;  discutients;  anti-plastics;  alterants;  dissolving, 
disintegrating,  liquefying,  absorbing  medicines. 

Action  and  Uses. — Resorbents  or  resolvents  are  drugs  that 
bring  about  an  absorption,  solution,  liquefaction,  disintegration  or 
removal  of  disease  products  from  the  tissues  or  body  cavities, 
chiefly  through  the  medium  of  the  lymph  system.  None  of  them 
exert  any  direct  influence  upon  the  processes  of  absorption  in  the 
lymph  vessels,  but  only  indirectly  accelerate  in  different  ways  the 
absorption  of  pathological  products  present  in  the  body.  Some 
operate  by  increasing  the  general  metabolism  (alkalies),  others 
by  causing  an  outwandering  of  white  blood-corpuscles  with  the 
resulting  phagocytosis  and  histolysis  (tincture  of  iodine,  blisters), 
and  still  others  by  destroying  the  infectious  agents  and  killing  the 
pathological  tissue  cells  and  instituting  a  degenerative  meta- 
morphosis of  the  same  (potassium  iodide,  iodoform,  mercury,  sal- 
varsan). Additional  modes  of  action  are:  by  transforming  solid 
pathological  products  into  a  fluid  and  more  readily  resorbable 
form  (sodium  chloride);  by  increasing  the  arterial  blood  supply 
(aeries);  by  causing  a  thickening  of  the  blood  and  consequent 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  77 

absorption  of  fluid  from  the  tissues  (cathartics,  diuretics),  and  by 
stimulating  the  blood  circulation  (digitalis).  The  important 
resorbents  are  the  following: 

1.  The  iodine  preparations,  potassium  iodide,  tincture  of 
iodine  and  iodoform,  which  are  used  internally  as  well  as  exter- 
nally. Internally,  iodine  has  a  paralyzing  and  lethal  effect  upon 
pathological  cell  collections,  especially  the  cells  of  goitre,  the  cells  of 
the  lymph  glands,  and  white  blood-corpuscles,  causing  them  to 
rapidly  undergo  fatty  and  granular  degeneration,  after  which  they 
are  resorbed  and  disposed  of  through  the  process  of  metabolism. 
In  addition,  iodine  has  a  specific  action  against  actinomycosis 
(but  net  against  botryomycosis)  and  the  neoplasms  of  tertiary 
syphilis  of  man.  In  chronic  metallic  poisonings,  iodine  acts  inter- 
nally as  a  resorbent  by  combining  with  the  almost  insoluble  metals 
(mercury,  lead)  and  forming  the  more  soluble  and  more  easily 
absorbed  iodides.  When  applied  externally,  the  absorbent  action 
of  iodine  results  from  the  production  of  an  erysipelatous-like 
inflammation,  with  outwandering  of  leucocytes  (local  leucocytosis 
and  phagocytosis),  the  absorption  of  masses  of  pathological 
exudates  by  these  cells,  and  the  liberation  of  enzymes  and 
histolysis. 

2.  The  alkalies  (sodium  chloride,  sodium  bicarbonate,  sodium 
sulphate,  Carlsbad  salts  and  ammonium  chloride)  dissolve  and 
liquefy  the  solid  inflammatory  products,  catarrhal  secretions  and 
croupous  exudates  upon  the  mucous  membranes,  serous  mem- 
branes, in  the  lungs,  liver  and  other  internal  organs;  increase  me- 
tabolism, thus  increasing  resorption;  increase  diffusion  through  the 
animal  membranes,  especially  the  vessel  walls;  stimulate  the  secre- 
tory and  excretory  activity  of  the  glands,  and  neutralize  and  dis- 
solve acids  which  collect  in  the  body  and  are  precipitated  in  dis- 
eased conditions  (uric  acid).  Externally,  the  alkalies  (soda, 
potash,  lye,  soap)  also  act  as  resorbents  by  softening  and  dissolving 
the  products  of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  skin. 

3.  Sulphur  acts  indirectly  as  an  absorbent  by  stimulating 
metabolism  and  increasing  the  secretions  of  the  glands  (liver, 
cutaneous  glands,  mucous  glands).     It  is  therefore  usually  em- 


78  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

ployed  to  absorb  chronic  exudates  in  lymphadenitis  and  also  in 
chronic  metallic  poisonings.  The  extent  of  the  resorbent  action 
of  the  antimony  salts  (black  sulphide  of  antimony,  sulphurated 
antimony)  is  not  definitely  known. 

4.  The  mercury  salts  were  formerly  regarded  as  especially 
active  resorbents  (antiplastics).  A  specific  resolvent  action  has 
been  demonstrated  for  the  mercurials  only  in  connection  with 
secondary  syphilis  of  man.  The  much-boasted  absorbent  action  of 
gray  mercurial  ointment  is  due  to  the  massage  and  antiseptic  effect. 
The  antiplastic  properties  of  calomel  are  to  be  attributed  to  its 
laxative  action.  It  has  been  scientifically  established  that  mer- 
cury (corrosive  sublimate)  only  in  repeated  minimum  doses  in- 
creases metabolism,  in  consequence  of  which  it  probably  also 
stimulates  resorption.  Similar  knowledge  exists  with  regard  to 
arsenic. 

5.  In  addition,  the  cathartics,  especially  arecoline  and  aloes, 
the  diixretics,  the  diaphoretics,  the  sialagogues,  and  the  cutaneous 
irritants  act  indirectly  as  stimulants  to  resorption. 

Drugs. — 1.  Potassii  iodidum.  Potassium  iodide.  A  specific 
against  goitre,  actinomycosis  and  lymphomas;  a  resorbent  of 
blood  extravasations  in  the  brain,  inflammatory  exudates  upon 
serous  membranes,  in  the  lungs,  etc.,  also  in  chronic  metalHc  poison- 
ings. Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  5-15,  3i  to  iv;  sheep,  goats  and 
swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.25-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv;  cats  and  fowl, 
0.1-0.2,  grs.  iss  to  iij. 

2.  lodoformum.  An  internal  resorbent  in  goitre,  lymphomas 
and  tuberculosis.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  2-5,  3ss  to  j;  dogs, 
0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij. 

3.  Tinctura  iodi.  Tincture  of  iodine.  Exclusively  an  exter- 
nal resorbent  in  surgical  affections:  exostoses,  periostitis,  tendinitis, 
tendovaginitis,  etc. 

4.  Sodii  chloridum,  Sodii  bicarbonas,  sodii  sulphas,  *sal 
Caroliniun  factitium  (Carlsbad  salts).  Resorbents  to  dissolve 
solid  exudates  in  the  body,  solvents  of  mucus  in  catarrhs,  stimu- 
lants to  metabolism  in  obesity.  Dose  for  cattle,  50-100,  5  iss  to  iij ; 
horses,  25-50,  5vj  to  xij;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  5ss  to  i;  swine. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  CIRCULATION  79 

2-5,  .5ss  to  i;  dogs,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  cats  and  fowl,  0.5-1,  grs. 
vij  to  XV. 

5.  Ammonii  chloridum.  Ammonium  chloride.  A  resorbent  in 
bronchitis  and  croupous  pneumonia,  croupous  pleuritis,  peri- 
tonitis, etc.  Dose  for  cattle,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  horses,  8-15,  5i 
to  iv;  dogs,  0.2-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv. 

6.  Sulphur  lotum,  sulphur  prsecipitatum,  sulphixr  sublimatum. 
Sulphur.  MetaboHc  stimulants  in  chronic  exudates.  Dose  for 
horses  and  cattle,  2-5,  3ss  to  j;  dogs,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  FEVER 

Nature  of  Fever. — By  the  term  fever  is  understood  a  symptom- 
complex,  in  which  the  general  condition  is  disturbed  in  several 
respects.  The  most  important  changes  are  elevation  of  the  body 
temperature,  increased  frequency  of  the  pulse,  change  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  blood  and  of  the  blood-pressure,  alteration  of  the 
composition  of  the  blood  and  derangement  of  the  digestive,  respi- 
ratory and  nervous  apparatuses.  Increase  of  the  body  tempera- 
ture is  not  the  only  symptom  of  fever. 

The  exact  processes  concerned  in  the  generation  of  fever  are  not 
entirely  understood.  Like  inflammation,  fever  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  natural  reaction  of  the  body  designed  to  protect  it  against 
invading  disease-producing  agents.  In  this  connection,  the  most 
important  role  seems  to  be  played  by  the  formation  of  antitoxins 
(antibodies)  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  heat  centre  in  the  brain 
on  the  other.  The  antitoxins  neutralize  the  bacterial  poisons 
(toxins)  with  the  augmentation  of  albumin  decomposition  and 
increase  of  metabolism.  The  heat  centre  regulates  the  uniform 
distribution  of  heat  and  also  the  generation  of  heat  in  the  body 
(calorific  centre).  When  the  heat  centre  is  stimulated  the  body 
temperature  rises;  when  it  is  depressed  or  paralyzed  the  tempera- 
ture falls.  The  centre  may  be  stimulated  in  several  ways:  trau- 
matically,  by  puncturing  with  an  instrument  or  wounding  it  other- 
wise (heat  puncture  in  rabbits);  thermically,  by  high  degrees  of 
heat  (heat  stroke,  sun  stroke) ;  chemically,  by  numerous  chemical 
substances  (toxins,  ferments,  mallein,  tuberculin);  or  reflexly,  by 
pain  (so-called  nervous  fever).  On  the  other  hand,  the  heat  centre 
may  be  depressed  and  the  body  temperature  lowered  by  trau- 
matic (destruction  of  the  centre),  thermic  (cold)  and  chemical 
(acetanilid,  antipyrine)  influences. 

Causes  and  Forms  of  Fever. — The  causes  of  fever  are  various. 
Bacteria  are  most  frequently  the  cause  (wound  fever,  infectious 
fever).  Not  rarely,  however,  fever  occurs  without  the  inter- 
80 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  FEVER         81 

vention  of  bacteria  from  the  resorption  of  products  resulting  from 
the  disintegration  of  the  blood  (aseptic  fever). 

1.  In  wotmd  fever,  the  formation  of  antitoxic  substances  is 
accompanied  by  increased  metabolism,  disturbance  of  heat  regu- 
lation and  stimulation  of  the  heat  centre,  the  result  of  the  resorp- 
tion of  dissolved  bacterial  toxins  and  certain  chemical  substances 
from  the  wound  secretion.  Wound  fever  is  therefore  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  resorption  fever.  When  the  materials  absorbed  are 
bacteria  or  toxins  produced  by  the  bacteria  in  the  wound  the 
term  septic  or  bacterial  fever  is  used  (infectious  fever,  intoxication 
fever,  septicaemia,  pysemia).  In  a  large  number  of  cases,  fever  is 
associated  with  entirely  benign  wounds  like  those  following  castra- 
tion, and  non-infected  wounds  such  as  subcutaneous  bone  frac- 
tures and  blood  extravasations.  Fever  in  these  cases  probably 
occurs  from  the  resorption  of  the  ferment-like  decomposition 
products  of  the  blood  and  tissues,  the  action  of  which  upon  the 
blood  and  the  nervous  system  is  similar  to  that  of  the  bacterial 
toxins.  A  fever  of  this  character  is  called  aseptic  or  ferment  fever. 
These  active  chemical  substances  are  blood  and  tissue  ferments 
(fibrin  ferment,  histozyme),  organic  toxins  arising  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  tissue  cells  (nuclein  from  the  nuclei  of  the  white  blood- 
cells,  free  haemoglobin)  and  sometimes  also  glandular  secretions. 

2.  The  infectious  fever  of  the  acute  infectious  diseases  (con- 
tagious pneumonia,  strangles,  canine  distemper,  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  etc.)  is  produced  in  the  same  manner  as  wound  fever, 
the  infection  and  intoxication  of  the  blood  occurring  usually 
through  the  respiratory  or  gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane. 

3.  As  non-bacterial  fevers  there  are  yet  to  be  mentioned  ner- 
vous fever  (very  painful  conditions),  rheimiatic  fever  (diseases  due 
to  chilling),  inanition  fever  (anaemia),  also  the  fever  of  heat  stroke, 
fatigue  (restraint  of  horses),  and  overheating  (long  rides,  casting). 

Physiology  of  Heat. — Animal  heat  arises  from  the  activity  of  the 
body  cells,  especially  the  muscle  and  gland  cells,  chiefly  from 
the  burning  up  (oxidation)  of  the  carbohydrates.  The  constancy 
of  the  normal  temperature  is  maintained  by  the  regulating  activity 
of  the  heat  centre  in  connection  with  the  vasomotor  nervous  sys- 
6 


82  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tern  (vasoconstrictors,  vasodilators)  and  the  sweat  glands.  The 
heat  centre,  situated  in  the  region  of  the  corpus  striatum,  regu- 
lates heat  production  and  heat  dissipation.  Increased  dissipation 
of  body  heat  is  brought  about  by  dilation  of  the  cutaneous  blood 
vessels  and  increased  secretion  of  sweat,  while  contraction  of  the 
cutaneous  vessels  decreases  heat  dissipation.  The  regulation  of 
heat  dissipation  through  the  skin  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
body  in  health  as  well  as  in  fever  because  by  far  the  greatest 
amount  (84  per  cent.)  of  heat  produced  in  the  body  is  given  off 
through  the  skin. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — The  very  complicated  disease  process 
known  as  fever  can  be  treated  in  various  ways. 

1.  The  antiseptic,  or  the  causal  method,  is  to  be  preferred  to  all 
others  when  the  microorganisms  causing  the  fever  are  accessible 
to  the  direct  action  of  antiseptics.  This  is  the  case  in  wound 
fever.  The  most  important  points  in  connection  with  the  treat- 
ment of  surgical  fever  are  thorough  disinfection  of  wounds,  in- 
cision of  abscesses  and  phlegmona,  amputation  of  necrotic  masses, 
drainage,  change  of  dressings  and  irrigation.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  antiseptic  method  cannot  be  used  in  the  treatment  of  the 
acute,  febrile,  infectious  diseases  (influenza,  strangles,  canine 
distemper,  aphthous  fever,  etc.)  because  the  microorganisms  which 
have  invaded  the  blood  usually  cannot  be  destroyed  by  an  anti- 
septic without  danger  to  the  animal  body.  The  action  of  salvarsan 
in  contagious  pneumonia  of  horses,  of  quinine  in  malarial  fever  and 
of  salicylic  acid  in  articular  rheumatism  are  exceptions.  Immu- 
nity against  some  infectious  diseases  can  be  obtained  by  pro- 
tective vaccination  (prophylactic  method);  this  is  especially  true 
of  swine  erysipelas,  anthrax,  black  leg  [and  hog  cholera].  Fur- 
thermore, cutaneous  irritation,  by  increasing  the  physiological 
production  of  antitoxins  in  the  body,  operates  in  a  certain  sense 
antiseptically. 

2.  The  expective  or  dietetic  method  omits  the  use  of  anti- 
pyretics entirely.  The  fever  of  the  acute  infectious  diseases, 
when  running  a  typical  course,  is  usually  not  to  be  combated,  but 
is  rather  to  be  regarded  as  a  natural  healing  process  or  a  protective 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  FEVER         83 

reaction  of  the  body  against  the  invading  microorganisms,  which 
are  rendered  harmless  by  the  high  temperature  and  the  increased 
formation  of  antitoxins.  In  addition,  attention  must  be  called 
to  the  harmful  effects  of  many  antipyretics  upon  the  digestion 
and  the  nervous  system. 

So  long  as  the  infectious  fever  does  not  deviate  from  its  typical 
course  and  the  nervous  system,  the  heart  and  the  digestive  organs 
are  not  endangered  by  an  excessively  high  or  a  very  long  con- 
tinued fever,  the  expective  method  is  entirely  rational.  It  must, 
however,  be  abandoned  immediately  whenever,  because  of  the 
type,  height  or  continuance  of  the  fever,  the  general  condition, 
especially  the  activity  of  the  heart  and  brain  and  the  appetite  for 
food,  is  disturbed. 

3.  The  symptomatic  treatment  of  fever  by  the  use  of  anti- 
pyretics, cardiac  stimulants,  nerve  stimulants,  digestive  tonics, 
derivatives  (cathartics,  diaphoretics,  sialagogues,  diuretics)  and 
cutaneous  irritants  is  of  the  most  practical  importance  in  veterinary 
medicine  in  the  treatment  of  the  febrile  infectious  diseases.  Among 
the  different  symptoms  of  fever,  a  considerable  rise  of  temperature 
is  the  most  significant  and  the  most  dangerous  to  life.  Temper- 
ature-reducing drugs  (see  below)  are  therefore  of  first  importance 
in  the  treatment  of  fever.  In  addition,  in  severe  disturbance  of  the 
cardiac  functions  and  of  the  nervous  system  the  administration  of 
cardiacs  and  nerve  excitants  is  also  indicated  (see  those  chapters). 
The  cathartics  empty  the  intestinal  canal  (infectious  material), 
hasten  the  elimination  of  infectious  material  and  toxins  from  the 
blood  by  stimulating  the  intestinal  gland  secretions,  overcome  the 
constipation  frequently  present  in  fever,  and  also  reduce  tempera- 
ture. Reduction  of  temperature  together  with  a  change  in  the 
distribution  of  the  blood  is  produced  by  cutaneous  irritants  (oil  of 
mustard,  Priessnitz  dressing).  Phlebotomy,  formerly  employed 
for  its  derivative  action,  has  passed  out  of  use. 

4.  The  bath  treatment  of  fever  (thermic  method,  hydrotherapy) 
in  the  form  of  cold  baths  (20-30°  C.)  is  an  important  method  in 
human  medicine,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  abdominal  typhus. 
In  veterinary  medicine,  for  technical  reasons,  this  method,  as  a 


84  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

rule,  cannot  be  used.  Simple  washing  or  douching  with  cold 
water,  also  wrapping  in  cold  wet  sheets,  is  without  considerable 
value. 

MEDICAL  ANTIPYRETICS 

Synonyms:  Antifebrilics,  antithermics,  febrifuges,  antitypics,  anti- 
tjrposics,  antiperiodics. 

Actions. — The  reduction  of  temperature  by  antipyretics  is 
brought  about  in  very  different  ways.  The  action  of  most  of  them 
is  very  complicated.  According  to  the  mode  of  action,  they  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  groups: 

1.  Depression  of  the  heat  centre  in  the  brain,  when  it  is  excited 
by  fever,  with  consequent  reduction  of  temperature,  appears  to  be 
the  dominant  action  of  the  modern  antipyretics:  antipyrine^ 
acetanilid,  aspirin,  phenacetin,  salipyrin,  lactophenin,  pyramidon, 
etc.  They  are  to  be  regarded  accordingly  as  narcotics  for  the  heat 
centre  (or  the  vasomotor  centre  ?).  This  property  is  in  agreement 
with  the  fact  that  antipyrine,  aspirin,  etc.,  also  exert  a  narcotic 
effect  upon  other  parts  of  the  nervous  system,  especially  in  neu- 
ralgia and  also  in  the  production  of  local  narcosis;  the  temper- 
ature also  falls  in  morphine  and  chloroform  narcosis.  The  rapid 
action  of  the  modem  antipyretics  is  in  great  contrast  to  that  of  the 
other  antipyretics,  the  fall  of  temperature  beginning  as  early  as 
10  to  20  minutes  after  administration,  and  can  only  be  explained 
through  the  action  of  a  promptly  functionating  heat-regulating 
centre.  Digitalis,  the  action  of  which  is  essentially  different,  does 
not  reduce  temperature  until  the  twelfth  to  the  twenty-fourth 
hour.  The  action  of  the  modem  antipyretics  upon  the  calorific 
centre  may  be  demonstrated  experimentally.  Given  to  animals 
with  fever  resulting  from  septic  infection,  antipyrine  immediately 
reduces  the  temperature  so  long  as  the  heat  centre  remains  intact. 
After  section  of  the  brain  back  of  the  corpus  striatum,  however, 
antipyrine  has  no  influence  on  the  temperature. 

2.  Increasing  heat  dissipation  through  the  skin.  Those  anti- 
pyretics which  by  stimulating  the  vagus  centre  increase  blood- 
pressure  and  which  by  regulating  the  distribution  of  the  blood 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  FEVER  85 

bring  blood  from  the  centre  of  the  body  to  the  periphery,  where 
it  can  more  readily  give  off  its  heat  to  the  surrounding  atmosphere, 
reduce  the  temperature  of  the  body  by  increasing  the  dissipation 
of  heat  through  the  skin.  The  same  effect  is  obtained  by  other 
drugs  which  act  upon  the  cutaneous  blood-vessels  through  the 
vasomotors  (paralysis  of  the  vasomotor  centre).  The  antipyretics 
which  operate  by  increasing  blood-pressure  include  particulariy 
digitalis  and  strophanthus.  Dilation  of  the  cutaneous  blood-vessels 
is  a  part  of  the  antipyretic  action  of  alcohol,  and  also  of  the  mod- 
em antipyretics  in  so  far  as  they  depress  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
calorific  centre  (vasomotor  ganglion  cells  for  the  cutaneous  vessels). 

3.  By  decreasing  metabolism,  partly  by  retarding  the  giving 
off  of  oxygen  by  the  red  blood-corpuscles  to  the  tissues  (internal 
respiration)  and  partly  by  depressing  the  oxidation  processes  in 
the  cells  of  the  tissues,  alcohol,  quinine  and  hydrocyanic  acid  cause 
a  reduction  of  body  temperature.  The  acids  act  as  antipyretics  by 
reducing  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  thus  decreasing  its  oxida- 
tion capacity. 

dr.  By  inhibiting  and  destroying  the  fever-producing  micro- 
organisms, camphor,  saHcyUc  acid,  quinine,  alcohol,  arsenic, 
salvarsan  (organic  arsenical  compoimd),  some  of  the  modem  anti- 
pyretics and  vigorous  cutaneous  irritation  (increased  formation  of 
antitoxins)  bring  about  a  fall  of  temperature. 

A  peculiarity  of  many  antipyretics  is  that  they  only  reduce  the 
increased  temperature  of  animals  in  a  febrile  condition  and  do 
not  lower  the  normal  body  temperature  of  animals  in  health.  This 
is  readily  explained  with  regard  to  those  antipyretics  which  reduce 
temperature  by  destroying  the  fever-producing  organisms,  since 
in  the  healthy  body  there  are  no  such  organisms  to  destroy.  The 
modem  antipyretics,  which  operate  as  cerebral  sedatives,  exert  a 
more  pronounced  narcotic  influence  upon  the  heat  centre  or  upon 
the  vasomotor  centre  irritated  by  fever  than  upon  the  normal  heat 
centre.  Those  antipyretics  which  act  by  decreasing  metabolism 
can  lower  the  body  temperature  in  normal  as  well  as  in  febrile  ani- 
mals, as  has  been  demonstrated  by  experiments  with  large  doses  of 
alcohol  and  quinine.     In  individual  cases,  the  modem  antipyretics 


86  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

also  reduce  normal  temperature;  this  has  been  demonstrated  by 
Frohner,  especially  in  connection  with  acetanilid  (Monatshefte 
fur  prakt.  Tierheilkunde,  1893). 

Antipyretics. — 1.  Acetanilidum.  Acetanilid.  The  cheapest 
and  most  powerful  modern  antipyretic.  Dose  for  horses  and 
cattle,  20-40,  5v  to  x;  dogs,  0.25-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv.  *Aspirin  has  a 
similar  action.  (The  patented  name  aspirin  is  to  be  avoided  and 
the  chemical  name,  acidum  acetyl-salicylicum,  used  in  prescrip- 
tions, as  the  drug  costs  one-third  less  under  this  name.) 

2.  Antipyrina.  Antipyrine.  A  very  effective  but  costly  anti- 
pyretic. Prescribed  under  the  chemical  name,  pyrazalonum 
phenyl  dymethylicum,  it  costs  one-half  less  than  under  the  pat- 
ented name  antipyrine.  A  specific  against  muscular  and  articular 
rheumatism.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  15-25,  3iv  to  vj;  large 
dogs,  2-4,  5ss  to  j;  small  dogs,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv;  cats,  0.2-0.5, 
grs.  iij  to  vij. 

3.  Acetphenitidinum.  Phenacetin.  A  very  good  modern  anti- 
P3nretic.  Dose,  same  as  for  acetanilid.  *Lactophenin  and  *sali- 
pyrin  have  a  similar  action. 

4.  Camphora.  Camphor.  A  specific  antipyretic  for  septic 
fever  and  fever  with  heart  weakness.  Best  used  subcutaneously 
in  the  form  of  spiritus  camphorae  or  camphor  oil  [*oleum  cam- 
phoratum:  camphor  1,  olive  oil  10;  *oleum  camphoratum  fortior: 
camphor  1,  olive  oil  4].  The  doses  heretofore  given  of  these  prep- 
arations were  much  too  small.  The  single  dose  of  oleum  cam- 
phoratum fortior  for  the  horse,  subcutaneously,  is  50-150,  5iss  to 
v;  daily  doses,  100-250,  §iij  to  viij. 

5.  Digitalis.  A  superior  antipyretic  in  severe  infectious  fever 
with  cardiac  weakness  (contagious  pneumonia,  etc.).  Dose  (not 
to  be  repeated)  for  horses,  5-10,  3i  to  ijss;  dogs,  0.2-0.5,  grs.  iij 
to  vij. 

6.  Acidum  salicylicum.  Salicylic  acid.  A  specific  against 
acute  muscular  and  articular  rheumatism;  not  effective  in  septic 
and  pyaemic  fevers.  Dose  of  salicylic  acid  and  sodii  salicylas  for 
horses  and  cattle,  25-75,  3vj  to  5 ijss;  swine,  2-5,  3ss  to  j;  dogs, 
0.25-2,  grs.  iv  to  xxx. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  FEVER         87 

7.  Alcohol.  A  valuable  antipyretic  in  many  fevers,  especially 
septic  and  pyaemic  fevers.  Acts  at  the  same  time  as  a  stimulant 
to  the  brain  and  heart  and  also  as  a  food  (economizes  tissue  waste). 
Dose  for  febrile  horses  and  cattle,  100-200,  giij  to  vjss,  every  two 
hours;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  25-100,  3vj  to  5iij;  dogs,  25-50, 
5vj  to  xii;  cats,  2-5,  3ss  to  j.  Dose  of  brandy  (spiritus  vini 
gallici)  two  to  three  times  these  quantities. 

8.  Quinina.  Quinine.  Specific  against  intermittent  fever. 
Unreliable  in  contagious  pneumonia,  influenza,  canine  distemper, 
articular  rheumatism,  etc.  Dose  of  quininae  sulphas  for  horses  and 
cattle,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  dogs,  0.25-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv. 


GENERAL   THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  DISEASES  OF  THE 
NERVOUS    SYSTEM 

Pathology. — Of  the  diseases  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  pe- 
ripheral nerves,  those  of  especial  therapeutic  consideration  are  acute 
inflammation  and  hyperaemia  of  the  brain,  Bornas's  disease  of 
the  horse,  epilepsy  and  eclampsia,  sturdy  or  gid,  cerebrospinal 
meningitis,  inflammation  of  the  spinal  cord,  trotting  disease  of 
sheep,  and  the  spinal  paralyses;  also  paralyses  of  the  peripheral 
nerves,  especially  the  optic,  facial,  trigeminus,  suprascapular  and 
radial.  The  central  nervous  system  is  also  frequently  affected 
secondarily  in  the  course  of  infectious  diseases  (canine  distemper, 
tetanus,  contagious  pneumonia,  strangles,  tuberculosis,  dourine), 
in  poisoning  (strychnine,  lead,  alcohol,  red  poppy,  equisetum)  and 
in  wounds  (fracture  of  the  skull  or  vertebrae,  hemorrhage,  cqn- 
cussion,  contusion). 

Physiology. — The  most  important  part  of  the  brain  physio- 
logically and  therapeutically  is  the  cerebral  cortex.  This  is,  in 
the  first  place,  the  location  of  the  psychic  functions  (consciousness, 
memory,  intelligence,  vohtion).  In  the  cerebrum  are  situated  the 
motor,  sensory,  optic  and  acoustic  cortical  areas.  The  most  of 
these  cortical  centres  manifest  a  specific  relation  to  certain  drugs. 
They  may  also  be  stimulated  by  mechanical,  thermic  and  electrical 
stimuH,  and  by  the  will.  The  corpus  striatum  is  the  chief  seat  of 
the  heat  centre.  In  the  corpora  quadrigemina  and  optic  thalamus 
is  the  pupillary  centre,  by  which  stimuli  acting  upon  the  retina 
are  transmitted  reflexly  to  the  oculomotor  nerve  (pupillary  mo- 
tion). In  addition,  the  middle  brain  (corpus  striatum,  optic  thala- 
mus) contains  centres  for  the  coordination  of  movement,  which 
also  originate  forced  movements.  The  cerebellum  contains  the 
centre  for  the  muscle  sense  and  the  equilibrium  of  the  body  (centre 
of  equilibrium);  its  extirpation  produces  cerebellar  ataxia.  The 
semicircular  canals  are  to  be  regarded  as  static  organs  for  the 
movement  and  carriage  of  the  head.  Ganglion  cells  form  the 
88 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  89 

anatomical  foundation  of  all  of  the  nerve  centres  (psychic,  auto- 
matic, reflex  activity). 

The  medulla  oblongata  also  contains  a  large  number  of  impor- 
tant vital  centres.  These  centres  can  also  be  influenced  thera- 
peutically by  specific  drugs.  Especially  noteworthy  are  the  respi- 
ratory, vasomotor,  vagus,  salivary,  sweat  and  diabetic  centres, 
and  the  centres  of  vomition  and  swallowing. 

In  the  spinal  cord  are  the  paths  of  conduction  of  the  motor 
(inferior  column)  and  the  sensory  nerves  (superior  column)  of  the 
extremities;  also  the  centres  for  the  uterus,  the  vessels,  the  sweat 
glands,  the  discharge  of  urine,  the  erection  of  the  penis  and  for  the 
sphincter  muscle  of  the  anus. 

The  peripheral  nerves  have  sensory,  motor,  secretory,  vaso- 
motor, trophic  (?),  reflex-stimulating  and  reflex-inhibiting  func- 
tions. Especially  important  in  therapeutics  are  the  reflex  func- 
tions (centripetal,  centrifugal  nerves;  reflex  movement,  reflex 
inhibition,  reflex  secretion).  All  peripheral  nerves,  but  especially 
the  sensory  nerves  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  and  all 
parts  of  the  central  nervous  system  possess  reflex  powers, — i.e., 
the  abihty  to  transmit  a  centripetal  stimulus  to  a  reflex  centre 
and  out  over  a  centrifugal  path  without  the  intervention  of  con- 
sciousness (coughing,  sneezing,  pupillary  contraction,  vascular 
contraction,  vascular  dilation,  perspiration,  vomiting,  increased 
peristalsis,  tendon  reflexes). 

The  intrinsic  chemical  constituents  of  the  brain  and  nerves 
are  the  phosphorus-containing  protagon  and  lecithin,  cerebrin, 
and  other  proteids.  Resting  nerve  substance  is  alkaline  in  reac- 
tion; the  active,  acid  (lactic  acid  and  other  products  of  fatigue). 
Natural  sleep  is  brought  about  by  the  action  of  the  fatigue  prod- 
ucts on  the  albumin  of  the  ganglion  cells  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  morphine  and  chloroform  narcosis;  anaemia  of  the  brain 
occurs  secondarily. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — 1.  On  account  of  the  varied  and  inti- 
mate relations  between  the  nervous  system  and  a  large  number  of 
drugs,  the  medical  treatment  of  nervous  diseases  is  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  therapeutics  of  nervous  diseases.    The  action  of 


90  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

drugs,  it  is  true,  is  in  most  instances  only  indirect  and  symp- 
tomatic, and  is  either  sedative  or  stimulant.  If,  for  example,  the 
psychic  excitement  in  the  course  of  inflammation  of  the  brain  is 
relieved  by  morphine,  the  disease  process  itself,  i.e.,  the  inflam- 
mation of  the  cerebral  membranes,  remains  unaffected.  There 
are,  however,  also  cases  in  which  there  is  a  direct  influence  exerted 
by  the  drug  upon  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  (morphine  in 
eclampsia,  potassium  bromide  in  epilepsy,  strychnine  in  amaurosis, 
physiological  antidotes). 

2.  The  derivative  method  is  also  partly  medical.  It  consists 
in  the  employment  of  the  cathartics,  sialagogues  and  diaphoretics, 
blisters  and  phlebotomy  (indicated  in  cerebral  congestion). 

3.  Electrotherapy  is  also  of  value  in  veterinary  medicine,  espe- 
cially in  canine  practice,  for  the  treatment  of  peripheral  and  spinal 
paralyses.  The  faradic  current  stimulates  the  spinal  cord  reflexly 
in  the  same  manner  as  cutaneous  irritation;  the  constant  current 
acts  directly,  like  the  drugs  acting  upon  the  central  nervous 
system. 

4.  Massage  is  an  important  mechanical  method,  especially  for 
peripheral  paralyses  (tapotement). 

5.  Hydrotherapy  is  practicable  only  to  a  limited  extent  in 
veterinary  medicine  (cold  douche,  ice  poultice,  Priessnitz  dressing). 

6.  Operative  treatment  is  undertaken  in  sturdy  or  gid  and 
fractures  of  the  skull  (trepanation) ;  also  in  the  form  of  neurotomy. 

Finally,  there  is  the  rest  treatment  (protection  from  external 
stimuli,  quiet  and  dark  stall),  and  the  dietetic  (green  food  in  cere- 
bral inflanunation  in  the  horse),  the  expective  (cerebral  hemor- 
rhage) and  the  prophylactic  methods.  The  hypnotic  and  sug- 
gestive treatment,  very  important  in  human  medicine,  cannot  be 
used  on  the  domestic  animals. 

Drugs  Acting  on  the  Nerves.    Neurotics.    Nervines 

Classification. — The  drugs  used  in  the  treatment  of  diseases 

of  the  nervous  system  may  be  classified  according  to  the  part  upon 

which  they  act  as  well  as  according  to  the  character  of  the  action. 

Grouped  according  to  the  part  acted  upon,  there  are  drugs  acting 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  91 

upon  the  brain  (cerebralics,  encephalics),  upon  the  spinal  cord 
(spinalics),  and  upon  the  peripheral  nerves  (peripheric  nervines). 
Besides  this  anatomical  division,  the  classification  based  upon 
physiological  principles  is  of  special  practical  importance  in  thera- 
peutics; according  to  action,  there  are  drugs  which  are  stimulating 
(excitants)  and  others  which  are  quieting  (sedatives)  to  the  nerv- 
ous structures.  Finally,  there  may  be  a  combination  of  the  two 
methods  of  classification.  In  this  way  the  following  subdivisions 
have  been  formed: 

I.  Cerebralics.  These  are  again  subdivided  into  drugs  which 
act  upon  the  cerebrum,  upon  the  medulla  oblongata  and  upon  the 
twelve  cranial  nerves.  Those  drugs  which  have  a  relation  to  the 
cerebellum,  e.g.,  alcohol  and  aspidium,  are  of  no  special  practical 
consideration  in  this  connection. 

1.  The  drugs  acting  upon  the  cerebrum  are  divided  according 
to  the  location  and  character  of  their  action  into  the  following 
groups : 

(a)  Excitants  to  the  cortical  psychic  centres:  alcohol,  ether, 

caffeine,  nicotine,  cocaine  and  apomorphine. 

(b)  Excitants  to  the  motor  centres:  atropine,  camphor,  picro- 

toxin  and  lead  salts. 

(c)  Sedatives  for  both  kinds  of  centres:  potassium    bromide 

and  chloral  hydrate. 

(d)  Hypnotics  (drugs  that  produce  sleep):  morphine,  chloral 

hydrate,  sulphonal,  trional,   veronal,   medinal,   isopral 
and  adalin. 

(e)  Narcotics  and  anaesthetics  in  the  restricted  sense:  chloro- 

form, ether  and  chloral. 

2.  For  the  medulla  oblongata  there  are: 

(a)  Excitants  in  general:  veratrine,  atropine,  hyoscine  (scopo- 

lamine), caffeine,  strychnine,  camphor  and  ammonium 
salts. 

(b)  Sedatives  in  general:  morphine,  potassium  bromide  and 

chloral  hydrate. 

(c)  Excitants  to   the  respiratory  centre:  atropine,   hyoscine 

(scopolamine)  and  strychnine. 


92  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

(d)  Excitants  to  the  vasomotor  centre:  caffeine,  theobromine, 

theocine  and  digitalis. 

(e)  Depressor  to  the  vasomotor  centre:  amyl  nitrite. 

(f)  Excitants  to  the  vagus  centre:  digitalis  and  strophanthus. 

(g)  Excitants  to  the  centre  of  vomition:  apomorphine  and 

emetine. 
3.  The  specifics  for  the  cranial  nerves  are: 

(a)  Olfactory:  strychnine. 

(b)  Optic:  strychnine,  quinine,  santonin,  aspidium  and  amyl 

nitrite. 

(c)  Oculomotor:  the  mydriatics — atropine  and  hyoscine  (scopo- 

lamine) ;  the  myotics — eserine,  pilocarpine  and  arecoline. 

(d)  Trochlear  (and  abducens) :  santonin. 

(e)  Trigeminus:  strychnine,  aconitine  and  cocaine. 

(f)  Facial:  strychnine. 

(g)  Auditory :  quinine,  salicylic  acid  and  cannabis  indica. 
(h)  Glossopharyngeal:  apomorphine  and  atropine. 

(i)   Vagus:   atropine,   hyoscine    (scopolamine),   the   digitahs 

group,  strychnine  and  veratrine. 
(k)  Hypoglossal:  strychnine. 

In  addition,  atropine,  ergot,  cocaine  and  amyl  nitrite  are 
specific  for  the  sjrmpathetic,  and  atropine  and  morphine  for  the 
splanchnic  nerves. 

n.  Spinalics  are  divided,  according  to  their  action,  into: 

(a)  Tetanies:  strychnine  and  cornutine  (lumbar  cord). 

(b)  Sedatives:  morphine,    potassium    bromide    and    chloral 

hydrate. 

IIL  Peripherics.  These  are  classified  according  to  the  func- 
tions of  the  peripheral  nerves  as  follows: 

(a)  Motor  excitants:  camphor  and  eserine. 

(b)  Motor  sedatives:  curare  and  conine. 

(c)  Sensory  excitants :  veratrine  and  cutaneous  irritants. 

(d)  Sensory  sedatives  or  local  anaesthetics:  cocaine,  adrenalin, 

novocaine,  anaesthesin,  eucaine  B,  tropacocaine,  alypin^ 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  93 

stovain,    propsesin,    dipropsesin,    subcutin,    zycloform, 
orthoform,  nirvanin,  acoin,  holocain,  antipyrine,  men- 
thol and  ether;  also  morphine  and  hydrocyanic  acid. 
For  the  purposes  of  general  therapeutics,  division  of  the  neu- 
rotics simply  into  stimulants  and  sedatives  is  most  desirable. 
Both  classes  of  drugs  operate  by  producing  a  specific  change  in  the 
nerve  albumins,  consisting  especially  in  the  formation  of  double 
combinations,  as  morphine  albuminate,  strychnine  albuminate 
and  bromide  albuminate.    Some  of  these  combinations  are  less 
susceptible  to  stimuli  (morphine  albuminate)  than  the  original 
nerve  albumin.     In  some  instances,  changes  in  the  composition 
and  in  the  distribution  of  the  blood  also  participate  in  the  action. 

1.  STIMULANTS   TO   THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.    EXCITANTS 
Synonyms:    Analeptics,    stimulants,    euphorics,    exhilarants,    tetanies, 
spasmodics,  spinants,  hyperkinetics,  epileptifacients,  antiparalytics;  exciting, 
stimulating,  restorative,  invigorating  medicines. 

Uses. — The  nerve  stimulants  are  employed  in  the  treatment  of 
the  various  disease  conditions  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems 
which  are  inaugurated  with  general  or  local  weakness  or  paralysis 
of  these  systems  or  of  individual  parts:  brain,  spinal  cord,  periph- 
eral and  sympathetic  nerves;  also  the  skeletal  muscles,  heart, 
intestinal  musculature,  etc.  The  most  important  of  these  dis- 
eases are: 

1.  Psychic  depression  in  the  course  of  severe  febrile  conditions, 
e.g.,  influenza  and  contagious  pneumonia  of  the  horse,  canine  dis- 
temper, catarrhal  fever  of  cattle,  swine  erysipelas,  fowl  cholera  and 
septic  and  pysemic  conditions. 

2.  General  weakness  in  the  course  of  acute  and  chronic  dis- 
eases, e.g.,  parturient  paresis  of  cattle,  anaemia,  leukaemia,  after 
difficult  parturition,  following  overexertion,  after  internal  and 
external  hemorrhages,  and  in  fall  of  body  temperature. 

3.  Heart  weakness  in  the  course  of  infectious  diseases,  e.g., 
contagious  pneumonia  and  malignant  aphthous  fever. 

4.  Brain  diseases  in  the  stage  of  depression:  acute  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain,  chronic  hydrocephalus,  cerebral  anaemia, 
vertigo,  syncope,  cerebral  apoplexy  and  cerebral  paralysis. 


94  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

5.  Pareses  and  paralyses  of  the  cranial  nerves,  especially 
incipient  paralysis  of  the  optic  (amblyopia  and  amaurosis),  recur- 
rent (roaring  in  horses),  facial  (paralysis  of  the  lower  lip),  trigem- 
inus (paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  mastication),  and  hypoglossal 
(paralysis  of  the  tongue). 

6.  Spinal  paralyses.  These  include  the  different  forms  of 
weakness  of  the  loins;  spinal  meningitis  and  myelitis;  concussions, 
hemorrhages,  traumatic  affections  of  the  spinal  cord,  paralytic 
conditions  of  the  posterior  quarters,  and  paralyses  of  the  bladder, 
rectum,  penis  and  tail.  Of  the  infectious  diseases  which  are  com- 
plicated with  spinal  paralyses,  canine  distemper,  contagious  pneu- 
monia and  dourine  of  horses,  and  trotting  disease  of  sheep  may  be 
mentioned. 

7.  Muscle  paralyses.  These  are  chiefly  observed  in  the  horse 
in  the  course  of  azoturia,  after  casting,  in  inflammation  of  the 
muscles  and  in  some  poisonings  (lead). 

8.  Paralyses  of  peripheral  nerves.  Of  these,  paralyses  of  the 
facial,  radial,  subscapular,  sciatic,  tibial,  peroneal  and  obturator 
nerves  are  to  be  especially  mentioned. 

9.  Paraljrtic  conditions  in  regions  supplied  by  the  sympathetic. 
To  this  class  belong  pareses  of  the  muscular  wall  of  the  rumen  in 
ruminants  and  of  the  intestinal  canal  in  horses. 

10.  Poisonings.  In  most  poisonings  the  use  of  an  excitant  is 
necessary  because  in  the  later  stages  paralytic  symptoms  appear 
which  must  be  treated  symptomatically.  Here  may  be  especially 
mentioned  poisonings  from  phosphorus,  arsenic,  mercury,  lead, 
carbohc  acid,  alcohol,  chloroform,  colchicum,  opium  and  morphine, 
red  poppy,  agrostemma  githago,  chick  pea,  taxus,  digitalis,  aloes, 
lupines,  equisetum,  cantharides,  snake  bites  and  toxins  (meat  and 
mushroom  poisoning). 

Drugs. — In  veterinary  practice,  the  most  frequently  used 
excitants  are  the  alkaloids  (which  are  the  most  powerful  stimulants), 
alcoholic  and  ethereal  preparations,  ethereal  oils  and  inorganic 
compounds.  The  most  important  are  given  below  in  the  order  of 
their  strength  : 

1.  Strychnina.     Strychnine.     The  principal  remedy  in  spinal 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  95 

motor  paralyses,  pareses  and  paralyses  of  the  posterior  quarters, 
paralysis  of  the  recurrent  nerve  (roaring),  paralysis  of  the  bladder, 
penis,  tail  and  rectum,  amblyopia  and  amaurosis,  lead  paralysis, 
and  chloroform,  chloral  hydrate  and  other  narcotic  poisonings. 
The  dose  of  strychninae  sulphas  internally  and  subcutaneously 
(not  intratracheally)  is  one-tenth  of  a  milligram  for  each  kilogram 
of  body  weight;  therefore,  the  dose  for  horses  is  0.05-0.1,  grs. 
^  to  iss;  cattle,  0.05-0.15,  grs.  M  to  ij ;  sheep  and  goats,  0.005,  gr. 
3/40;  swine,  0.002-0.005,  gr.  1/40  to  3/40;  dogs,  0.001-0.003,  gr. 
1/70  to  1/25;  cats,  0.0005-0.001,  gr.  1/140  to  1/70;  fowl,  0.0002- 
0.0005,  gr.  1/340  to  1/140. 

2.  Veratrina.  Veratrin.  The  chief  remedy  in  fatigue  and 
paralyses  of  the  striated  and  smooth  musculature  of  the  body;  also 
a  very  powerful  excitant  to  the  entire  nervous  system.  It  is  used 
principally  in  cattle  practice,  in  which  it  is  employed  especially  in 
the  treatment  of  antepartum  paralysis,  exhaustion  after  parturi- 
tion, parturient  paresis  and  atony  of  the  musculature  of  the  rumen. 
In  addition,  it  is  frequently  prescribed  in  heart  weakness  and  in 
conditions  of  collapse,  especially  in  the  course  of  narcotic  poison- 
ings. The  subcutaneous  dose  of  veratrin  in  alcoholic  solution 
for  horses  and  cattle  is  0.05-0.2,  grs.  ^  to  iij ;  sheep  and  goats, 
0.01-0.02,  gr.  1/8  to  }4;  dogs,  0.001-0.005,  gr.  1/70  to  3/40;  cats, 
0.001,  gr.  1/70.  The  crude  drug,  veratrum,  and  tinctura  veratri 
(dose  per  os  for  horses  and  cattle  5-10,  3i  to  ijss)  are  less  frequently 
used  than  the  alkaloid  because  of  their  slower  action. 

3.  Atropine  and  hyoscine  (scopolamine).  These  are  among  the 
strongest  nerve  stimulants  and  are  specific  in  heart  weakness, 
threatened  respiratory  paralysis,  and  in  poisoning  by  chloroform, 
morphine,  eserine,  arecoline  and  pilocarpine.  Dose  of  atropinae 
sulphas  for  horses  and  cattle,  0.05-0.1,  gr.  %  to  iss;  sheep  and 
goats,  0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  %;  swine,  0.01-0.03,  gr.  1/8  to  1/3; 
dogs,  0.005-0.05,  gr.  3/40  to  %;  cats,  0.002-0.005,  gr.  1/40  to  3/40. 
The  dose  of  hyoscinae  hydrobromidum  subcutaneously  is  one- 
tenth  these  quantities:  horses  and  cattle,  0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  %; 
dogs,  0.005,  gr.  3/40. 

4.  Cafifeina.    Caffeine.    A   specific   against   heart   weakness, 


96  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

incipient  oedema  of  the  lungs,  spinal  paralysis,  conditions  of  col- 
lapse, parturient  paresis,  and  poisoning  by  morphine,  chloroform, 
alcohol  and  toxins.  The  subcutaneous  or  internal  dose  of  *caf- 
feinae  sodio-salicylas,  N.F.,  for  horses  and  cattle  is  5-10,  3i  to 
ijss;  large  dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx;  small  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  iss  to 
vij.    An  infusion  of  coffee  or  tea  maybe  used  instead  of  caffeine. 

5.  Physostigmine  (eserine),  pilocarpine,  arecoline.  Stimu- 
lants in  relaxation  and  paralysis  of  the  musculature  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  especially  in  cattle  and  horses.  Physostigmine 
(eserine)  is  also  a  myotic  (pupillary  contraction).  The  dose  of 
physostigminae  salicylas  and  physostigminae  sulphas  subcutan- 
eously  for  horses  is  0.05-0.1,  grs.  ^  to  iss;  cattle,  0.1-0.2,  grs.  iss  to 
iij.  Dose  of  pilocairpinae  hydrochloridum  for  horses,  0.5,  grs.  vij; 
cattle,  0.5-0.8,  grs.  vij  to  xii.  Arecolinae  hydrobromidum  is 
given  to  horses  in  doses  of  0.02-0.08,  grs.  34  to  i. 

6.  Camphora.  Camphor.  One  of  the  most  valuable  stimu- 
lants for  the  brain  and  heart  in  all  conditions  of  psychic  depression, 
stupor,  collapse,  heart  weakness  and  exhaustion  in  the  course  of 
febrile  infectious  diseases,  severe  constitutional  affections  and 
narcotic  poisonings.  It  is  usually  administered  subcutaneously 
to  all  the  domestic  animals  in  the  form  of  camphor  oil  [camphor  1, 
olive  oil  10;  also  camphor  1,  olive  oil  4]  or  camphor  spirit.  The 
single  dose  of  oleum  camphoratum  fortior  [camphor  1,  olive  oil  4] 
for  horses  is  50-150,  5 iss  to  v;  dogs,  5-10,  3i  to  ijss;  cats,  1-5, 
TTjjxv  to  3i. 

7.  Alcohol  and  ether.  In  small  doses  both  are  strong  stimu- 
lants to  the  brain  and  the  other  parts  of  the  nervous  system;  also  to 
the  heart  and  digestion.  Given  subcutaneously  or  by  the  mouth 
in  all  conditions  of  weakness  or  collapse  occurring  in  the  course  of 
severe  infectious  diseases  and  in  inanition,  in  pronounced  exhaus- 
tion following  parturition  and  hemorrhage,  in  severe  poisonings 
and  in  threatened  cerebral  and  cardiac  paralysis.  Dose  of  alcohol 
for  horses  and  cattle,  25-50,  3vj  to  xij;  sheep  and  goats,  10-20, 
3  ijss  to  iv;  swine,  5-10, 5i  to  ijss;  dogs,  2-5, 3ss  toi;  cats  and  fowl, 
1-2,  TTjjxv  to  xxx.  Dose  of  ether  one-half.  Alcohol  dilutum, 
spiritus  vini  gallici,  vinum  album,  vinum  rubrum,  *beer  and 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  97 

spiritus  setheris  may  also  be  used  as  stimulants  in  corresponding 
doses. 

8.  Ammonium  compounds.  These  are  very  powerful  excitants 
to  the  brain,  heart  and  intestines  in  all  weak  conditions  in  the 
course  of  infectious  diseases  and  poisonings,  and  are  sometimes 
used  in  the  treatment  of  cattle  and  the  smaller  ruminants  and 
dogs.  Aqua  ammoniae,  diluted  with  plenty  of  cold  water,  is  given 
to  cattle  in  doses  of  10-30,  3ij  to  gi;  ammonii  carbonas:  cattle, 
20-50,  5v  to  xij;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  3ss  to  i;  spiritus  ammoniae 
aromaticus:  dogs,  0.3-0.4,  tt^v  to  3i. 

9.  Potassiiun  salts.  These  are  stimulants  to  the  heart,  brain 
and  muscles  and  are  most  frequently  given  to  dogs  in  the  form  of 
meat  extracts  in  all  weak  conditions.     Dose,  2-10,  5i  to  ijss. 

2.  DRUGS  THAT  CALM  THE  NERVES.    SEDATIVES 

Synonyms:  Sedantics,  narcotics,  anaesthetics,  temperantics,  anodynes, 
anaJgics,  analgesics,  hypnotics,  somnif erics,  soporifics,  ebriantics,  paralyzants, 
paregorics,  antitetanics,  antispasmodics,  anticonvulsives,  antiepileptics,  anti- 
neuralgics,  anti-asthmatics,  antodontalgics;  soothing,  benumbing,  narcotizing, 
anaesthetizing,  pain-alleviating,  convulsion-alleviating  drugs;  drugs  that 
produce  sleep. 

Uses. — The  nerve  sedatives  are  used  to  overcome  conditions  of 
psychic,  sensory,  and  motor  excitement  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  nervous  system;  also  in  operations.  The  diseased  conditions 
in  which  they  are  indicated  are,  in  general,  the  following: 

1.  Psychic  excitement  in  the  course  of  diseases  of  the  brain 
and  severe  febrile  general  affections,  including  acute  cerebral 
hypersemia,  acute  and  subacute  inflammation  of  the  brain  in  the 
stage  of  excitement,  erethistic  affections  in  the  course  of  chronic 
hydrocephalus,  the  cerebral  form  of  canine  distemper  and  psychic 
disturbances  in  the  course  of  contagious  pneumonia,  strangles, 
malignant  catarrhal  fever,  tuberculosis,  gid  (stage  of  immigration), 
and  septicsemia. 

2.  Cerebral  convulsions  in  the  form  of  epilepsy,  eclampsia, 
catalepsy,  chorea,  epileptiform  convulsions  and  forced  movements. 
These  occur  either  as  primary  diseases  or  secondarily  in  the  course 


98  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

of  inflammation  of  the  brain,  canine  distemper,  contagious  pneu- 
monia, cerebrospinal  meningitis,  tuberculosis,  strangles,  and  in 
invasion  of  the  brain  by  parasites  (ccenuri,  echinococci). 

3.  Spinal  convulsions.  The  rigid  cramp  of  tetanus  and  the 
convulsions  occurring  in  the  course  of  spinal  meningitis,  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis, and  trotting  disease  of  sheep  maybe  mentioned  as 
examples.  A  disposition  to  take  fright  readily  is  also  an  indica- 
tion of  spinal  excitement. 

4.  Excited  conditions  of  the  peripheral  nerves.  The  sensory- 
nerves  are  in  a  condition  of  excitation  in  the  different  painful  con- 
ditions of  external  and  internal  organs:  colic,  cough,  neuritis, 
hypersesthesia,  pruritis,  nymphomania,  satyriasis;  the  motor 
nerves,  in  peripheral  muscular  spasms,  cramp  of  the  sphincters, 
straining  after  prolapse,  spasms  of  the  stomach,  intestines  and 
uterus,  and  palpitation  of  the  heart. 

5.  Poisonings.  The  most  important  intoxications  accom- 
panied by  symptoms  of  excitation,  and  which  are  therefore  to  be 
combated  with  sedatives,  are  poisoning  by  strychnine,  veratrin, 
atropine,  hyoscine,  aconitin,  nicotine,  cocaine,  apomorphine,  lead, 
Hering^s  lake,  alcohol,  red  poppy  and  aspidium, 

6.  Finally,  the  sedatives  are  used  to  prepare  animals  for  opera- 
tions (see  the  chapter  on  general  and  local  narcosis,  p.  101). 

Classification. — The  sedatives  are  divided  into  several  sub- 
divisions, according  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  used,  as 
follows: 

1.  Sedatives  in  a  general  sense.  These  include  potassium 
bromide,  chloral  hydrate,  [cannabis  indica],  opium,  morphine, 
codeine,  peppermint,  matricaria  and  valerian. 

2.  Hypnotics:  sulphonal,  trional,  veronal,  medinal,  adalin, 
hypnone,  morphine  and  codeine. 

3.  Narcotics  or  anaesthetics,  which  are  again  divided  into 
general  and  local.  General:  chloroform,  [chloral],  ether,  ethyl 
bromide,  etc.  Local:  cocaine,  adrenalin,  novocaine,  anaesthin, 
eucaine  B,  alypin,  tropacocaine,  stovain,  propsesin,  subcutin, 
zycloform,  orthoform,  holocain,  nirvanin,  antipyrine,  morphine, 
ether,  menthol,  freezing  mixtures,  etc.     Some  of  the  local  anaes- 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  99 

thetics  produce  first  a  powerful  local  irritation  and  are  therefore 
called  ansesthetica  dolorosa. 

4.  Antispasmodics:  potassium  bromide,  chloral  hydrate,  mor- 
phine and  the  ethereal  oils. 

In  human  medicines  there  are  also  other  subdivisions;  the 
antodontalgics,  or  toothache  remedies  (chloroform,  cocaine,  adren- 
alin, dilute  carbolic  acid,  alcohol,  brisk  embrocations  upon  the 
gums  and  caustics  for  the  dental  pulp),  the  anti-asthmatics,  or 
asthma  remedies  (chloroform,  morphine,  amyl  nitrite,  and  lobelia), 
and  the  antineuralgics,  or  neuralgia  remedies,  (morphine,  anti- 
pyrine,  menthol,  migrainine,  etc.). 

Drugs. — 1.  Morphine.  This  is  the  chief  narcotic  in  operative 
surgery  in  dogs;  also,  a  sedative  in  all  conditions  of  psychic  excita- 
tion; a  local  and  general  anaesthetic  in  painful  conditions,  espe- 
cially colic  and  cough;  a  specific  antispasmodic  in  eclampsia  of 
suckling  bitches,  and  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by  atropine,  hyos- 
cine  and  strychnine.  The  dose  of  morphinae  sulphas,  subcuta- 
neously,  for  coHc  in  horses  is  0.3-0.6,  grs.  iv  to  ix;  as  a  narcotic  in 
dogs,  0.02-0.15,  grs.  J^  to  ij.  Opium  was  formerly  used  instead  of 
morphine.  The  treatment  of  colic  in  horses  with  large  doses  of 
tincture  of  opium  (250,  5viij)  did  not  prove  satisfactory  in  the 
Berlin  clinic.  [American  veterinarians  have  found  cannabis 
indica  of  more  value  than  opium  in  controlling  pain  in  colic  in 
horses.  The  fluidextractum  cannabis  indicae  is  given  by  the  mouth 
in  doses  of  15,  5  ss,  repeated  every  half  hour,  or  in  single  doses  of 
4,  3i,  intravenously.]  Several  derivatives  of  opium  and  mor- 
phine: codeine,  heroin,  dionine,  peronine,  etc.,  are  recommended 
as  hypnotics  and  sedatives. 

2.  Potassii  bromidum.  Potassium  bromide  is  a  specific 
against  epilepsy,  epileptiform  convulsions,  tetanus,  strychnine 
poisoning  and  eclampsia;  sedative  in  all  conditions  of  excitation 
of  the  brain,  in  nymphomania,  cough  and  palpitation  of  the 
heart.  Single  doses  for  horses  and  cattle,  20-100,  3v  to  giij; 
sheep  and  swine,  2-5,  grs.  xxx  to  5i;  dogs,  0.25-2,  grs.  iij  to  xxx; 
cats,  0.25-0.5,  grs.  iij  to  vij;  fowl,  0.1-0.2,  grs.  iss  to  iij. 

3.  Chloroformum.    A  valuable  narcotic  in  operations  on  horses; 


100         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

antispasmodic  in  eclampsia,  tetanus,  strychnine  poisoning,  and 
prolapse  of  the  uterus  and  rectum;  local  anaesthetic.  Dose  by- 
inhalation  for  horses,  50-150,  §iss  to  5  v.  Ethyl  bromide  is  also 
recommended  for  inhalation  narcosis. 

4.  Chloralum  hydratum.  Chloral  hydrate.  A  valuable  nar- 
cotic in  operations  on  horses;  given  before  casting  in  the  form  of 
clysters  (75-125,  §ijss  to  5jv,  in  warm,  mucilaginous  fluid). 
Hypnotic  and  sedative  in  all  conditions  of  psychic  excitation  and 
painful  affections.  Specific  antidote  against  strychnine  tetanus; 
antispasmodic  in  tetanus,  eclampsia,  convulsions  of  canine  dis- 
temper and  straining  after  prolapses.  Single  doses  for  horses  and 
cattle,  25-50,  5vj  to  xij;  dogs,  0.5  to  5,  grs.  vij  to  5i;  sheep,  goats 
and  swine,  2-5, 5  ss  to  i ;  cats  and  fowl,  0.25-2,  grs.  iij  to  xxx.  Chlor- 
alformamidum,  *acetal,  *somnal,  *bromal  hydrate,  butyl-chloral 
and  many  other  new  preparations  are  recommended  as  substitutes 
for  chloral. 

5.  MiheT.  Ether.  In  large  doses,  a  narcotic  for  operations, 
frequently  in  combination  with  chloroform.  An  antispasmodic 
in  spasmodic  colic  and  a  local  anaesthetic.  Dose  for  cats  as  an 
inhalation  narcotic,  20-30,  5v  to  5i.  As  an  antispasmodic,  in- 
ternally, for  horses  and  cattle,  25-50,  3  vj  to  xij ;  dogs,  2-5,  3ss  to  i. 
Alcohol  in  large  doses  is  also  used  as  a  sedative  in  prolapse  of 
the  uterus  and  rectum.  Horses  and  cattle  receive  500-1000, 
Oi  to  ij,  of  spiritus  vini  gaUici  (brandy)  [or  one-half  to  one  pint 
of  alcohol]. 

6.  Cocainae  hydrochloridimi.  The  most  valuable  local  anaes- 
thetic, especially  in  the  treatment  of  the  eye;  also  a  local  anaes- 
thetic in  operations  (Schleich's  endermatic  method  and  subcuta- 
neously),  and  an  unexcelled  agent  in  the  diagnosis  of  lameness  in 
the  horse  (0.2,  grs.  iij,  subcutaneously  over  the  nerves  on  the  inside 
and  outside  of  the  fetlock  joint,  etc.,  at  the  place  for  neurectomy). 
As  substitutes  for  cocaine,  the  following  have  been  reconmiended: 
•adrenalin,  *novocaine,  *anaesthesin,  *alypin,  *stovain,  *pro- 
paesin,  *subcutin,  *zycloform,  *orthoform,  *eucaine,  *acoine, 
*holocain,  *nirvamn,  *tropacocaine  and  others,  but  they  are  not 
necessary  in  veterinary  medicine. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  101 

7.  Sulphonmethanum.  Sulphonal.  A  good  hypnotic  for  the 
dog.  Dose  for  large  dogs,  2-4,  5ss  to  j;  small  dogs,. 0.5-2,  grs. 
vij  to  XXX.  Other  hypnotics  for  animals  are  sulphonethylme- 
thanum  (trional),  *tetronal,  *veronal,  *medinal,  *adalin,  *aceto- 
phenone  (hypnone),  sethylis  carbamas  (urethane)  and  *amylene 
hydroxide. 

8.  Ethereal  oils.  Many  of  these  in  large  doses  possess  anti- 
spasmodic powers  and  are  for  this  reason  used  in  spasmodic  colic; 
also  used  sometimes  as  local  anaesthetics.  The  most  important 
drugs  containing  these  oils  are  matricaria,  Valeriana,  mentha 
piperita  and  asafoetida.  Dose  of  these  aromatic  drugs  for  cattle, 
50-100,  giss  to  Siij;  horses,  25-50,  3vi  to  xij;  given  in  infusion. 
One  of  the  ethereal  oils  is  oleum  terebinthinae. 

9.  Acidum  hydrocyanicum.  Used  chiefly  as  a  sedative  for  the 
sensory  nerves  of  the  larynx  (cough).  [Dose  of  acidum  hydro- 
cyanicum dilutimi  for  horses  and  cattle,  1.3-4,  ttjjxx  to  5i;  dogs, 
0.06-0.3,  TT^i  to  v.]  Aqua  amygdalae  amarae  (bitter-almond 
water),  a  preparation  containing  hydrocyanic  acid,  is  given  to 
horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  10-50,  3ijss  to  5iss;  dogs,  0.5-3, 
TT^vij  to  xlv. 

3.  NARCOSIS  AND  ANAESTHESIA 

General  Narcosis. — The  narcotizing  of  animals  for  the  purpose 
of  performing  operations  without  pain  may  be  general  or  local. 
Different  drugs  are  used  to  produce  narcosis  in  animals  of  the 
different  species.  Chloroform  is  in  general  suitable  only  for  horses 
and  is  not  entirely  without  danger  for  these  animals.  The  use  of 
chloroform  on  dogs,  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  cats  is  not  recom- 
mended on  account  of  the  dangerous  complications  it  produces 
(paralysis  of  respiration,  convulsions,  tympanites,  vomiting  and 
traumatic  pneumonia).  Chloral  hydrate  is  the  best  narcotic  for 
horses  and  is  to  be  preferred  to  chloroform  and  morphine  espe- 
cially; given  per  os  it  produces  narcosis  very  rapidly,  per  rectum 
somewhat  more  slowly;  the  narcosis  is  of  medium  degree,  but  is 
sufficient  for  most  operations;  chloral  may  also  be  employed  for 
animals  of  other  species.    Morphine  is  adapted  for  use  as  a  general 


102        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

narcotic  for  dogs,  injected  subcutaneously;  less  suitable  for 
horses ;  ruminants  are  strongly  excited  by  morphine.  Ether  is  used 
as  a  narcotic  for  cats  [in  the  surgical  clinic  at  Copenhagen  it  is 
used  for  cattle;  it  is  also  frequently  used  for  dogs]. 

Local  Anaesthesia. — The  principal  local  anaesthetic  for  all 
domestic  animals  is  cocaine  (ophthalmology,  cutaneous  injections  in 
the  form  of  infiltration  anaesthesia,  subcutaneous  injection,  lumbar 
injection,  rectal  mucous  membrane,  nasal  mucous  membrane,  etc.). 
More  frequently  than  for  therapeutic  purposes,  cocaine  is  injected 
subcutaneously  in  horses  for  diagnostic  purposes  (differential 
diagnosis  of  lamenesses).  The  local  action  of  cocaine  is  assisted, 
and  its  toxicity  is  at  the  same  time  decreased,  by  the  addition  of 
adrenalin  (suprarenin)  to  the  cocaine  solution.  The  newer  local 
anaesthetics:  novocaine,  tropacocaine,  holocain,  acoin,  eucaine  B, 
anaesthesin,  alypin,  stovain,  nervanin,  orthoform,  zycloform,  pro- 
paesin,  etc.,  have,  with  the  exception  of  alypin,  not  displaced 
cocaine.  Ethyl  chloride  has  replaced  ether  as  a  local  anaesthetic. 
Anaesthesia  by  cold  (compressed  carbonic  acid)  is  Uttle  used  in 
veterinary  medicine. 

The  history  of  general  and  local  anaesthesia  has  been  written  by 
Regenbogen  (Monatshefte  fiir  praktische  Tierheilkunde,  Bd.  xx, 
1909). 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS   OF  THE  DISEASES  OF  THE 
RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS 

Pathology. — Of  the  numerous  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
those  which  are  the  object  of  veterinary  treatment  include  nasal, 
larj^ngeal  and  bronchial  catarrh;  the  more  severe  forms  of  rhini- 
tis, laryngitis,  tracheitis  and  bronchitis;  oedema  of  the  glottis, 
oedema  of  the  lungs,  roaring,  active  and  passive  hypersemia  of  the 
lungs,  the  different  forms  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  emphysema 
of  the  lungs  and  pleuritis.  More  rarely  parasitic  diseases  (lung 
worm  epidemics,  pentastomes,  oestrus  larvae)  and  tumors  (nasal 
cavity,  larynx)  are  presented  for  treatment.  On  the  other  hand, 
secondary  inflammatory  processes  occur  very  frequently  in  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane  in  the  course  of  infectious  diseases 
(strangles,  contagious  pneumonia,  influenza,  canine  distemper, 
malignant  catarrhal  fever,  etc.). 

Physiology. — The  natural  protectives  of  the  respiratory  organs 
are  the  layer  of  mucus  which  covers  the  mucous  membrane  and 
the  ciliated  epithelial  cells  of  the  membrane,  the  cilia  of  which 
carry  out  by  their  movement  any  foreign  bodies  which  may  enter. 
At  the  same  time,  the  air  passages  with  their  extensive  surface  and 
recesses  serve  to  warm  the  air  and  filter  out  the  dust.  Finally, 
for  the  forcible  removal  of  foreign  bodies  and  disease  products 
there  are  certain  defensive  reflexes  (sneezing,  coughing). 

The  pulmonary  respiration,  to  which  the  cutaneous  respiration 
can  be  to  a  certain  degree  compensatory,  consists  of  an  interchange 
of  gases  between  the  blood  and  the  external  air  (carbon  dioxide, 
oxygen).  This  gaseous  interchange  is  facilitated  by  the  continual 
change  of  air  (inspiratory  diaphragmatic  contraction,  expiratory 
lung  elasticity),  the  extensive  surface  of  the  lungs  (in  the  horse  100 
times  the  body  surface)  and  the  very  thin  diffusion  membrane 
(alveolar  walls).  In  diseases  of  the  lungs,  these  principal  factors 
of  respiration  are  more  or  less  interfered  with  (pneumonia,  em- 
physema). 

103 


104         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

The  automatic  respiratory  centre  in  the  medulla  oblongata  can 
be  stimulated  directly  and  indirectly  by  different  stimuli,  espe- 
cially drugs.  Insufficient  oxygen  and  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in 
the  blood  (anaemia,  venous  hyperaemia,  muscular  activity),  febrile 
temperature,  and  atropine,  scopolamine  and  other  drugs  act  as 
direct  stimulants.  Indirectly,  or  reflexly,  the  respiratory  centre  is 
stimulated  by  stimulation  of  the  peripheral  ends  of  the  vagus  nerve 
(regulating  nerve  of  respiration)  in  the  lungs,  the  cutaneous  sensory 
nerves  (painful  trauma,  inflammation,  cold),  the  superior  laryngeal 
nerve  (cough),  the  trigeminal,  olfactory  and  other  peripheral 
nerves.  The  artificial  stimulation  of  the  respiratory  centre  is  very 
important,  for  example,  in  chloroform  asphyxia  (atropine,  scopo- 
lamine, slapping  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the  flanks,  cold  douches). 

Therapeutic  Methods. — 1.  In  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
organs  of  respiration,  the  most  important  therapeutic  measure  is  a 
provision  for  a  supply  of  pure  air.  Good  ventilation  of  the  stable 
or,  when  possible,  keeping  the  patient  in  the  open  air  (pasturing, 
bivouac,  staking)  is  alone  sufficient  to  effect  a  cure  in  many  cases. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  catarrhal  and  infectious  diseases  of 
the  organs  of  the  chest.  Experience  in  the  Prussian  army  has  in 
numerous  instances  shown  the  favorable  effects  of  bivouacking  in 
summer,  particularly  in  contagious  pneumonia  in  horses.  Moist 
air  (warm  winds)  is  also  very  healing  in  catarrhs  of  the  respiratory 
mucous  membrane;  it  promotes  the  liquefaction  of  the  catarrhal 
secretions.  In  contrast  with  this  is  the  drying  and  heat-extracting 
influence  of  cold  winds.  With  the  air  therapy  should  be  combined 
proper  care  of  the  skin  (cutaneous  respiration). 

2.  Drugs  may  be  employed  for  different  purposes.  Of  special 
consideration  are  the  so-called  expectorants,  i.e.,  drugs  which 
promote  the  throwing  off,  or  expectoration,  of  abnormal  sub- 
stances from  the  respiratory  tract  (see  p.  107).  Also  of  importance 
are  the  derivative  (cathartics,  diuretics  and  sialagogues)  and  the 
symptomatic  methods  (narcotic  cough  remedies)  of  treatment, 
the  use  of  stimulants  to  the  respiratory  centre,  and  the  astringent, 
antiseptic  and  antiparasitic  methods  (catarrhs,  infectious  dis- 
eases, lung  worm  epidemics). 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  105 

3.  The  inhalation  method  (steam,  medicinal  solutions,  powders, 
gas)  has  for  its  purpose  the  local  treatment  of  the  diseased  respi- 
ratory mucous  membrane.  It  has  fallen  into  disuse  because  recent 
experiments  have  shown  that  vapors,  when  inhaled  with  the  usual 
inhalation  apparatus,  do  not  reach  the  alveoli  of  the  lungs  but  are 
held  back  by  the  nasal  septum,  the  posterior  wall  of  the  throat, 
the  epiglottis  and  the  vocal  cords.  With  the  very  complicated 
respiratory  apparatuses  (Bulling's,  Siegle^s,  Wassmuth's  and 
Schenk's)  used  in  human  medicine,  by  which  the  medicament  is 
divided  into  a  very  fine  spray,  the  vapor  only  reaches  the  alveoli 
when  it  is  aspirated  through  the  mouth  and  does  not  arrive  in  that 
part  of  the  respiratory  tract  when  inhaled  through  the  nose.  On 
account  of  their  complicated  structure  and  cost,  these  apparatuses 
are  of  no  practical  value  in  veterinary  medicine.  Inhalations  of 
oxygen  (contagious  pneumonia  of  horses)  have  not  proven  of 
value  in  the  treatment  of  animals.  Chloroform  and  ether  are 
given  by  inhalation  for  their  general  effects. 

4.  The  hydropathic  method  and  the  method  of  cutaneous  irri- 
tation are  very  effective  in  different  ways.  The  stimulant  effect 
upon  the  cutaneous  respiration,  the  reflex  stimulant  action  upon 
the  respiratory  centre,  the  derivative  effect  upon  pulmonary 
inflammation  and  pleuritis,  and  the  anodyne  action  (cough)  and 
antipyretic  effect  of  the  Priessnitz  dressing  and  rubefacients  or 
vesicants  (oil  of  mustard  in  alcohol  applied  to  the  chest  walls) 
are  especially  worthy  of  mention. 

5.  The  operative  method  includes  phlebotomy  (pulmonary 
congestion),  tracheotomy  (inspiratory  dyspnoea  in  consequence  of 
nasal,  pharyngeal  and  laryngeal  stenosis),  thoracocentesis  (hydro- 
thorax,  empyema)  and  extirpation  and  cauterization  of  neoplasms 
in  the  nasal  cavities  and  larnyx. 

6.  The  prophylactic  method  aims  to  prevent  diseases  of  the 
respiratory  organs  by  increasing  the  resistance  of  the  skin  and 
respiratory  mucous  membranes  to  the  influence  of  cold,  which  in 
many  cases  is  the  single  cause  of  the  disease  (exercise  and  work, 
accustoming  to  cold  temperatures,  pasturing).  With  horses,  it  is 
especially  important  to  avoid  decreasing  the  resistance  of  the  skin 


106        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

by  blanketing  in  the  stable.  Hot-house  breeding  has  the  effect  of 
making  the  breed  too  refined  (predisposition  to  tuberculosis  and 
other  lung  diseases).  Finally,  isolation  and  veterinary  police 
control  are  of  great  prophylactic  importance  in  dealing  with  the 
infectious  diseases. 

Inhalations  in  the  Treatment  of  Domestic  Animals. — In  spite  of  numerous 
experimental  investigations  very  divergent  views  still  prevail  regarding  the 
therapeutic  value  of  inhalations  for  man  and  animals,  also  concerning  the 
effectiveness  of  inhalation  apparatus  and  especially  on  the  question  as  to  how 
far  and  in  what  amount  inspired  medicines  penetrate  into  the  respiratory 
tract.  The  first  scientific  investigations  on  the  subject  were  made  in  1858  by 
Sales-Giron  with  an  inhalation  apparatus  in  which,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
compression  pump,  the  medicated  fluid  was  forced  imder  three  to  four  atmo- 
spheres pressure  through  a  very  fine  outlet  against  a  soHd  plate  and  thus 
divided  into  a  very  fine  spray.  In  experiments  with  this  apparatus,  Pietra- 
Sanda  and  Briau  did  not  succeed  in  introducing  the  inhaled  medicine  beyond 
the  larynx  and  therefore  concluded  that  when  it  was  used  the  sprayed  fluid 
would  not  generally  arrive  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  lungs.  New  apparatuses 
were  constructed  by  Siegle,  Bergson,  Mathieu,  Bulling  and  Wassmuth  in  which 
the  fluids  were  sprayed  by  compressed  air  or  were  vaporized  by  heat.  Experi- 
ments with  these  apparatuses  did  not  give  uniform  results,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following: 

Sanger  (Miinch.  med.Woch.,  1901)  denies  the  possibility  of  sprayed  fluids 
penetrating  to  the  deeper  parts  of  the  respiratory  tract.  Upon  the  basis  of 
experiments  with  the  Siegle  apparatus  on  phantom  lungs,  he  does  not  believe 
that  any  of  the  fine  droplets  of  sprayed  fluids  reach  the  bronchi  or  pass  beyond 
the  larynx  when  given  by  inhalation  with  this  apparatus.  Consequently,  he 
regards  the  inhalation  of  fluids  in  fine  spray  as  of  no  therapeutic  value.  Seige 
(Dissertation,  1905),  on  the  other  hand,  concluded  from  physical  investiga- 
tions with  the  Bergson-Siegle  apparatus  that  the  inhalation-stream  can  pene- 
trate to  the  deeper  parts  of  the  lungs  (no  experiments  were  made  upon  animals) . 
Enunerich  (Miinch.  med.  Woch.,  1901)  tested  the  apparatuses  of  Bulling 
and  Wassmuth  on  dogs  with  inhalations  of  boric  acid  solution  and  brine  and 
found  the  boric  acid  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  respiratory  tract  (margins  of 
the  lungs)  after  the  dogs  were  destroyed;  he  is  of  the  opinion  that  nothing 
reaches  the  alveoU  when  the  ordinary  inhalation  apparatus  is  used  and  that 
the  medicament  reaches  these  parts  only  when  it  is  administered  in  the  form  of  a 
fiine  spray  with  a  specially  constructed  apparatus.  After  inhalations  of  gentian 
violet  solution  with  Bulling's  apparatus,  von  Schrotter  (Munch,  med.  Woch., 
1903)  found  the  pigment  in  the  smallest  bronchi  and  in  the  alveoli;  he  regards 
the  newer  apparatuses  very  favorably. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  107 

Poschel  (Dissertation,  1905)  made  a  very  extensive  investigation  of  the 
subject  of  inhalation,  using  different  apparatuses  (ordinary  spray  apparatus, 
apparatuses  of  Schenk  and  Bulling)  on  dogs,  rabbits,  chickens  and  pigeons, 
and  reached  the  following  conclusions:  Vapors  and  gases  penetrate  to  the 
deepest  sections  of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  When  powders  are  inhaled 
through  the  nose  the  greater  part  is  precipitated  in  the  nasal  cavities;  when 
inhaled  through  the  mouth  they  reach  the  deepest  parts  of  the  respiratory 
apparatus.  Fluids  in  fine  spray,  when  given  by  inhalation  through  the  nose 
with  Bulling's  or  with  the  ordinary  apparatus,  do  not  enter  the  nasal  cavities 
but  are  precipitated  in  the  nostrils;  when  inhaled  through  the  mouth  with 
the  ordinary  apparatus  they  penetrate  to  the  pharynx  and  larjmx  and  the 
upper  fourth  of  the  trachea,  while  with  Bulling's  apparatus  they  reach  the 
lower  third  of  the  trachea.  Consequently,  the  inhalation  of  fluids  in  fine  spray 
is  indicated  only  in  diseases  of  the  oesophagus,  larynx  and  trachea.  The 
investigations  of  Freund  (Berl.  tierarztl.  Woch.,  1907)  on  horses  and  doga 
with  the  inhalation  apparatuses  of  Siegle,  Bulling  and  Wassmuth  have  also 
furnished  proof  that  when  coarsely  sprayed  solutions  are  inhaled  through  the 
nose  they  are  precipitated  just  within  the  nostrils,  while  fluids  in  fine  spray 
reach  only  the  pharyngeal  cavity  and  at  times  the  upper  part  of  the  trachea. 
In  dogs,  fluids  in  fine  spray,  when  inhaled  through  the  mouth,  penetrate  to 
the  large  and  small  bronchi  but  never  to  the  alveoH.  Kaestle  (Zeitschr.  fiir 
physik.  u.  diatet.  Therapie,  1907-1908)  attributes  the  conflicting  views  to 
differences  in  the  arrangement  of  the  experiments.  With  the  new  apparatuses, 
he  has  succeeded  at  every  attempt  in  introducing  finely  sprayed  fluids  into 
respiring  lungs  down  to  the  bronchi  and  probably  also  into  the  alveoli, 

EXPECTORANTS 

Synonyms:  Promoters  of  expectoration,  chest  remedies,  mucus-dissolv- 
ing remedies,  cough  remedies,  pneumatics,  bechics,  sternutatories,  errhines, 
ptarmics. 

Definition. — The  general  term  expectorants  is  applied  to  a 
group  of  drugs  which  possess  the  property  of  promoting  the  expec- 
toration of  disease  products  from  the  respiratory  apparatus  {ex- 
pedore).  These  products  are  usually  mucus,  masses  of  catarrhal 
purulent  and  croupous  exudates,  croupous  membranes,  pus, 
blood,  dead  lung  tissue,  foreign  bodies  and  parasites,  which  may  be 
located  in  the  lungs,  bronchi,  trachea  or  larynx.  More  rarely, 
snuff  or  other  substances  that  cause  sneezing  (sternutatories, 
errhines)  are  used  to  empty  the  nasal  cavities. 


108        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Action. — To  understand  the  action  of  expectorants,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  body  is  provided  with  certain  protective 
arrangements  by  which  it  is  possible  for  foreign  bodies  entering 
the  air  passages  to  be  removed  without  the  assistance  of  medi- 
cines. These  physiological  expectorants  are  cough,  the  outward- 
directed  movement  of  the  cilia  of  the  epithelial  cells  and,  some- 
times, sneezing.  As  a  result  of  catarrhal  swelling  of  the  mucous 
membrane  or  the  deposit  of  thick,  viscid  mucus  and  masses  of 
exudate,  the  activity  of  the  ciliated  epithelium  is  reduced  or  sup- 
pressed. The  same  effect  is  produced  when  the  cilia  are  involved 
by  excessive  catarrhal  desquamation,  inflammatory  infiltration 
or  ulceration,  and  also  when  they  are  paralyzed  by  the  products 
resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  the  retained  bronchial  con- 
tents (fatty  acids).  Cough,  also  an  important  natural  healing 
force,  is  sometimes  suppressed  or  abolished  by  general  bodily 
weakness  or  by  paralytic  conditions  of  the  sensory  nerves  of  the 
mucous  membrane  (necrosis  of  the  lungs,  severe  laryngitis). 
Cough  and  the  movement  of  the  cilia  can  both  be  artificially 
stimulated  by  certain  expectorant  drugs.  These,  however,  are 
not  the  only  methods  of  action  of  expectorants;  there  are  several 
others.  In  general,  the  methods  of  action  of  the  expectorants  are 
as  follows : 

1.  Stimulation  of  the  ciliated  epithelium.  The  principal  reme- 
dies are  ammonium  chloride  and  other  ammoniacal  preparations: 
ammonium  carbonate,  ammonia  water  and  aromatic  spirit  of 
ammonia.  Most  of  the  stimulant  expectorants  also  increase  the 
activity  of  the  ciUa. 

2.  Stimulant  (cough-producing)  expectorants.  These  stimu- 
late either  the  peripheral  sensory  nerves  of  the  mucous  membrane 
or  the  respiratory  centre.  They  include  tar,  creosote,  turpentine 
oil,  camphor,  benzoin,  balsam  of  Peru,  emetine,  ipecac,  senega  and 
quillaja.  Turpentine  oil  at  the  same  time  decreases  the  secretions 
of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane  and  suppresses  the  abnormal 
secretion  of  mucus. 

3.  Increase  of  the  gland  secretions  dissolves  mucus  and 
thereby  assists  expectoration.     Gland  secretions  are  increased  by 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  109 

the  following  drugs:  apomorphine,  [terpin  hydrate],  pilocarpine, 
arecoline,  the  antimony  salts,  sulphur,  the  alkalies  and  numerous 
aromatics. 

4.  Liquefaction  of  mucus,  chemically  or  mechanically,  is 
brought  about  by  all  of  the  alkalies  and  ammoniacal  preparations; 
also  by  sweet  and  mucilaginous  substances  and  water  (inhalation). 

5.  The  following  act  as  antiseptics  or  as  antiparasitics  in  putrid 
decomposition  of  the  contents  of  the  bronchi  and  bronchiectases, 
and  when  bacteria  or  parasites  are  present  (tuberculous  bron- 
chitis, canine  distemper,  strangles,  strongylus,  syngamus  trachealis) : 
creolin,  creosote,  tar  and  turpentine  oil. 

6.  A  narcotic  effect  (allaying  cough,  bechics)  is  exerted  upon 
the  irritated  respiratory  mucous  membrane  by  morphine,  codeine, 
heroin,  hydrocyanic  acid,  potassium  bromide  and  other  narcotics; 
also  by  mucilaginous  and  sweet  substances. 

7.  The  emetics  operate  as  expectorants  in  a  purely  mechanical 
way  (see  p.  35). 

Uses. — The  expectorants  are  the  most  important  drugs  in  the 
treatment  of  the  different  diseases  of  the  respiratory  apparatus. 
They  are  prescribed  in  bronchitis,  tracheitis,  laryngitis,  catarrhal 
and  croupous  pneumonia,  bronchiectases,  cavities  in  the  lungs, 
pulmonary  gangrene,  croupous  laryngitis,  tracheitis  and  bronchitis, 
mycotic  and  verminous  pneumonia  and  all  infectious  bronchial 
and  pulmonary  diseases;  also  to  remove  blood,  pus,  dust  and  other 
foreign  bodies  from  the  air  passages.  The  errhines  (sternutatories) 
are  used  in  diseases  of  the  nasal  cavity,  especially  in  oestrus  larvae 
disease  of  sheep.  In  dry  catarrhs,  and  also  when  viscid,  sticky, 
inflammatory  products  are  present  (dry  rales),  the  gland  stimu- 
lants and  the  mucus-liquefying  expectorants  are  generally  pre- 
scribed, while  the  stimulant  (cough-producing)  expectorants  and 
ciHary  stimulants  are  employed  when  large  collections  of  fluid 
disease  products  are  present  in  the  air  passages  (moist  rales). 

Drugs. — 1.  Ammonii  chloridum.  Ammonium  chloride  is  used 
as  an  expectorant  in  the  later  stages  of  bronchial  catarrh,  ca- 
tarrhal and  croupous  pneumonia,  canine  distemper,  strangles, 
etc.;  stimulates  the  movement  of   the  cilia,  liquefies  the  mucus 


110        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

and  increases  the  secretion  of  the  glands.  Dose  for  cattle,  10-25, 
Sijss  to  vj;  horses,  8-15,  5ij  to  5ss;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  1-2, 
grs.  XV  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.2-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv;  cats,  0.1-0.3,  grs.  iss  to  iv; 
fowl,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij. 

2.  Apomorphinae  hydrochloridum.  Apomorphine  is  a  superior 
expectorant  for  the  liquefaction  of  viscid  masses  of  mucus  in 
bronchial  catarrh,  catarrhal  pneumonia,  canine  distemper,  etc. 
Dose  internally  for  dogs,  0.001-0.003,  gr.  1/70  to  1/25  (up  to  0.03, 
gr.  1/3,  per  day);  horses,  0.02-0.05,  gr.  }4  to  M- 

3.  Ipecacuanha.  Ipecac.  A  good  expectorant  for  small  ani- 
mals in  catarrhal  pneumonia,  bronchitis  and  canine  distemper. 
Dose  for  dogs,  0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  %.  Dose  of  pulvis  ipecac- 
uanhae  et  opii  (Dover's  powder),  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 

4.  Senega  and  Quillaja.  Stimulant  expectorants  in  asthenic 
bronchitis  and  catarrhal  pneunaonia.  Dose  for  dogs  in  infusion, 
0.5-1.5,  grs.  vij  to  xxij;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx; 
cats,  0.2-0.5,  grs.  iij  to  vij. 

[5.  Terpini  hydras.  Terpin  hydrate.  In  small  doses,  in- 
creases the  secretions  of  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane;  large 
doses  inhibit  the  secretions.  Dose  for  the  dog,  0.1-0.5,  grs. 
jss  to  vij.] 

6.  Antimonii  et  potassii  tartras.  Tartar  emetic.  An  expec- 
torant for  vigorous  animals  in  bronchial  catarrh  and  broncho- 
pneumonia. Doses  for  cattle,  2-5,  5ss  to  5 i;  horses,  0.5-2,  grs. 
vij  to  xxx;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  0.1-0.2,  grs.  iss  to  iij ;  dogs, 
0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  %;  cats,  0.005-0.01,  gr.  3/40  to  1/8.  [Dose 
of  vinum  antimonii  for  dogs,  5  to  10  drops;  cats,  one-half.] 

7.  *Antimonium  sulphuratimi,  Kermes  mineral.  *Anti- 
monii  sulphidum,  black  sulphide  of  antimony.  Expectorants  in 
bronchitis,  canine  distemper  and  strangles.  Doses  for  horses 
and  cattle,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  sheep  and  swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx; 
dogs,  0.05-0.5,  grs.  %  to  vij. 

8.  Sulphtir  lotum,  sulphur  prsecipitatum,  sulphtu*  sublimatum. 
Sulphur.  An  old  expectorant  in  chronic  catarrh.  Dose  for 
horses,  2-5,  5ss  to  i. 

9.  Sodii  chloridum,  sodii  bicarbonas,  sodii  sulphas,  "^sal  Care- 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  111 

linum  factitium  N.F.  (artificial  Carlsbad  salts).  Mucus-dis- 
solving alkalies;  used  in  bronchial  catarrhs  and  in  catarrhal  and 
croupous  pneumonia.  Dose  for  cattle,  50-100,  5  iss  to  iij ;  horses, 
25-50,  5vi  to  5  iss;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  3ss  to  i;  dogs,  1-2,  grs. 

XV  to  XXX. 

10.  Anisum,  foeniculum,  carum,  *juniperus  and  other  aro- 
matics.  Good  expectorants  in  mild  bronchitis.  Dose  for  cattle, 
25-50,  5vi  to  5 iss;  horses,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj. 

11.  Oleiun  terebinthinae,  pix  liquida,  creosotum,  *creolin, 
balsamum  peruvianum,  benzoinum,  camphora  and  terebinthina. 
Stimulant  expectorants,  and  at  the  same  time  disinfectant,  in 
chronic  bronchitis,  bronchiectasis  and  pulmonary  gangrene. 
Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  dogs,  0.1-1,  grs. 
iss  to  XV. 

12.  Glycyrrhiza  and  extractum  glycyrrhizae,  saccharum  and 
syrupus.  Mild  stimulant  and  solvent  expectorants.  Dose,  ad 
libitum. 

13.  Morphinag  sulphas.  Morphine  sulphate.  A  specific  cough 
remedy  for  dogs.  Dose,  0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  ?^;  usually 
combined  with  hydrocyanic  acid  in  the  form  of  aqua  amygdalae 
amarae.  Dose  of  the  latter  for  dogs,  0.5-3,  TTjjvij  to  xlv.  Codeinae 
phosphas  or  codeinae  sulphas  is  still  better  than  morphine.  Dose, 
three  times  that  of  morphine. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS   OF  THE  DISEASES   OF  THE 
URINARY  ORGANS 

Pathology. — ^Among  the  diseases  of  the  urinary  organs,  those 
of  the  kidneys  are  rather  rare  in  the  domestic  animals,  which  is 
entirely  contrary  to  the  relation  of  these  diseases  to  man.  Ex- 
cluding pyelonephritis,  which  occurs  frequently  in  cattle  but  is 
scarcely  accessible  to  treatment,  the  only  condition  affecting  the 
kidneys  of  practical  importance  in  veterinary  therapeutics  is 
nephritis,  parenchymatous  and  interstitial.  The  latter  especially, 
which  develops  into  contracted  kidneys,  is  at  times  the  object  of 
treatment  in  horses  and  dogs.  Diseases  of  the  bladder  are  much 
more  frequent  in  the  domestic  animals.  In  dogs,  simple  catarrh 
of  the  bladder  is  most  commonly  met  with,  while  purulent  and 
hemorrhagic  cystitis  are  the  forms  of  inflammation  usually  pre- 
sented in  horses  and  cattle.  Cystic  calculi  and  paralysis  of  the 
bladder  occur  frequently  in  all  species.  On  the  other  hand,  tumors 
occur  only  in  isolated  cases. 

Physiology. — The  function  of  the  kidneys  is  the  secretion  of 
urine.  Different  parts  of  this  work  are  performed  by  certain  parts 
of  the  kidneys.  The  water  and  the  inorganic  salts  are  secreted 
by  the  glomeruli;  the  proper  constituents  of  the  urine,  especially 
the  urea  and  uric  acid,  are  secreted  by  the  epithelial  cells  of  the 
convoluted  tubules.  The  action  of  the  latter  cells  is  an  active, 
specific  secretion,  while  in  the  glomeruli  a  purely  mechanical  filtra- 
tion process  is  associated  with  the  action  of  the  epithelial  cells. 
In  addition  to  the  water  of  the  urine,  bacteria  and  blood  also  pass 
through  the  walls  of  the  glomeruli  in  healthy  and  diseased  kidneys. 
The  quantity  of  urine  excreted  increases  with  the  rise  of  blood-pres- 
sure and  decreases  with  the  fall  of  the  same.  Direct  or  reflex 
stimulation  of  the  splanchnic  causes  contraction  of  the  renal 
blood-vessels  and  increase  of  blood-pressure,  and  a  consequent 
increase  of  the  secretion  of  urine.  The  reaction  of  the  urine  of 
herbivora  is  alkaline  (calcium  carbonate) ;  of  carnivora,  acid  (phos- 
112 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS  113 

phates).  The  bladder  is  provided  with  a  double  set  of  muscles 
(sphincter  vesicae,  detrusor  urinse) ;  the  motor  centre  for  the  bladder 
is  in  the  lumbar  cord. 

Therapeutic  Methods. — Different  methods  can  be  used  in  the 
treatment  of  diseases  of  the  kidneys. 

1.  Acting  upon  the  secreting  epithelium  may  be  regarded  as  the 
direct  method.  It  consists  in  the  stimulation  of  the  depressed 
urinary  secretion  and  is  essentially  medical.  See  the  diuretics 
(caffeine,  theobromine,  theocine,  diuretin,  agurin). 

2.  Acting  upon  the  renal  circulation  (blood-vessels,  blood, 
blood-pressure,  nervous  system)  has  also  the  effect,  but  indirectly, 
of  increasing  the  secretion  or  filtration  of  urine  (digitalis,  water, 
milk,  alkaUes,  reflex  cutaneous  irritation). 

3.  The  derivative  method  relieves  the  diseased  kidneys  by 
increasing  the  secretions  of  the  intestinal  (cathartics),  cutaneous 
(diaphoretics,  baths)  and  sahvary  (arecoUne,  pilocarpine)  glands. 

4.  A  disinfectant  action  can  probably  be  exerted  upon  the  kid- 
neys and  also  upon  the  bladder  by  the  use  of  sahcylic  acid,  tannic 
acid,  uva  ursi,  etc.     This  is  denied  by  some. 

5.  Abnormality  in  reaction  can  be  removed  by  the  administra- 
tion of  alkalies  and  acids. 

6.  Rest  of  the  diseased  renal  tissues  is  obtained  by  bodily  quiet 
and  a  certain  diet  (food  poor  in  albumin  and  producing  Httle  urea; 
milk  especially). 

7.  The  operative  method  includes  the  removal  of  cystic  cal- 
culi and  local  treatment  of  the  bladder;  also  the  excision  of  dis- 
eased kidneys. 

DIURETICS 

Synonyms:     Hydragogues,  litholytics,  lithothryptics. 

Actions. — The  normal  secretion  of  urine  in  the  kidneys  (phys- 
iological diuresis)  occurs  as  a  result  of  the  cooperation  of  various 
factors,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  secretory  activity  of 
the  renal  epithelium,  the  blood-pressure,  the  blood  content  of  the 

glomeruli  and  the  diffusion  activity  of  the  renal  parenchyma. 
8 


114         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

In  normal  conditions,  all  these  factors  are  operating  at  nearly  their 
full  functional  capacity  and  for  this  reason,  when  diuretics  are 
administered  to  healthy  animals,  the  secretion  of  urine  is  either  not 
increased  at  all,  or  only  slightly  or  temporarily.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  diseases  in  which  there  is  decreased  activity  of  the  gland 
cells,  low  blood-pressure,  poor  blood  supply  or  blood  stasis  in  the 
kidneys,  or  depression  of  the  diffusion  activity  of  the  renal  tissues, 
the  depressed  secretion  of  urine  may  be  increased  by  numerous 
drugs.  The  diuretics  operate  in  different  ways,  corresponding  to 
the  complicated  processes  which  are  concerned  in  physiological 
diuresis.  According  to  their  mode  of  action,  the  diuretics  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  groups: 

1.  Specific  stimulants  for  the  secreting  renal  epithelium:  caf- 
*feine,  theobromine,  theocine,  diuretin,  agurin,  calomel,  salicylic 
acid,  milk  sugar  and  alkalies.  The  action  of  these  diuretics  is 
independent  of  cardiac  activity;  they  increase  the  secretion  of 
urine  even  when  the  blood-pressure  is  considerably  depressed. 

2.  Circulatory  diuretics:  digitalis  and  strophanthus.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  increase  of  blood-pressure  in  the  glomeruli  of  the 
kidneys  produced  by  these  drugs  there  occurs,  in  a  purely  physical 
manner,  an  increased  filtration  of  blood-serum  through  the  walls  of 
the  glomeruH  into  the  excretory  uriniferous  tubules.  This  group 
of  diuretics  is  most  effective  in  diseases  of  the  heart  accompanied  by 
low  blood-pressure. 

3.  Stimulant  diuretics  (aeries)  produce  an  active  hyperaemia, 
and  in  consequence  an  increased  secretion  of  urine.  This  group 
includes  alcohol  and  a  series  of  ethereal  oils,  resins  and  balsams: 
turpentine  oil,  turpentine,  juniper  berries,  oil  of  juniper,  balsam  of 
Peru,  balsam  of  copaiba,  petroselinum  (parsley),  ononis,  ligus- 
ticum,  mustard,  black  pepper,  capsicum,  colchicum,  cantharides 
and  alcohol. 

4.  Saline  diuretics  accelerate  diffusion  in  the  kidneys,  in- 
crease the  water  content  of  the  blood  and,  at  the  same  time,  mildly 
stimulate  the  renal  epitheHum.  They  include:  sodium  chlo- 
ride, sodium  and  potassium  bicarbonate,  sodium  and  potassium 
nitrate,    sodium    and    potassium    acetate,    potassium    chlorate, 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS  115 

potassium  tartrate  and  bitartrate,  sodium  salicylate  and  lithium 
carbonate. 

5.  Mechanical  diuretics,  which  promote  the  secretion  of  urine  by- 
flushing  out  the  renal  tubules,  are:  water,  milk,  and  also  the 
organic  acids,  acetic,  citric,  tartaric,  etc.,  which  by  their  oxidation 
increase  the  water  content  of  the  blood. 

Uses. — The  diuretics  are  employed  therapeutically  for  many 
different  purposes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  following: 

1.  The  resorption  of  fluid  collections  in  the  body  in  general 
dropsy,  ascites,  hydrothorax,  hydropericardium,  anasarca,  cedemas 
and  hydrsemia;  also  fluid  inflammatory  exudates  occurring  in  the 
course  of  pleuritis,  peritonitis,  serous  polyarthritis,  pneumonia  and 
acute  and  chronic  hydrocephalus.  The  diuretics  employed  in 
these  diseases,  which  bring  about  a  decrease  of  the  fluids  of  the 
body,  especially  the  blood,  and  thus  cause  a  reabsorption  of  fluid 
transudates  and  exudates,  were  formerly  called  hydragogue 
diuretics. 

2.  Flushing  the  renal  tubules,  the  pelvis  of  the  kidneys  and 
the  bladder  in  nephritis,  pyelitis  and  cystitis.  In  the  course  of 
parenchymatous  (catarrhal)  nephritis,  oliguria  or  even  anuria 
may  result  from  the  obstruction  of  the  straight  and  convoluted 
efferent  renal  tubules  with  urinary  casts,  desquamated  epithelium, 
fibrinous  exudate  or  blood.  These  conditions  may  be  overcome 
by  washing  the  obstructions  out  of  the  kidneys.  Collections  of 
pus  and  masses  of  exudate  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidneys  and  in  the 
bladder  can  be  removed  in  the  same  manner.  Irritant  diuretics, 
however,  are  to  be  avoided. 

3.  The  deriivation  of  blood  to  the  kidneys  when  distant  organs 
are  hypersemic  or  inflamed  (brain,  lungs,  pleura,  intestines,  liver). 

4.  Solution  of  urinary  sediments  in  the  pelves  of  the  kidneys 
and  in  the  bladder.  For  this  purpose,  the  alkahes  are  used. 
They  neutralize  the  uric  acid  and  form  urates  of  sodium,  potas- 
sium, calcium  and  lithium,  which  are  soluble  in  water. 

5.  The  removal  of  bacteria,  toxins,  poisons  and  metabolic 
products  (uric  acid  in  gout)  from  the  body. 

6.  To  relieve  the  heart  in  cardiac  diseases.    By  increasing  the 


116         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

elimination  of  water  from  the  blood,  the  diuretics  reduce  the  vol- 
ume of  the  latter  and  thus  diminish  the  work  of  the  heart. 

Drugs. — 1.  Caffeina.  A  specific  diuretic  in  all  dropsical  con- 
ditions; to  be  preferred  to  digitalis  in  dropsies  not  of  cardiac  origin 
(cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  contracted  kidneys,  hydremia),  in  which 
digitahs  is  ineffective.  Dose  of  *caffeinaB  sodio-salicylas  N.F., 
subcutaneously,  for  horses  and  cattle,  5-10,  3i  to  ijss;  large  dogs, 
0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx;  small  dogs,  grs.  iss  to  vij.  It  has  no  cumu- 
lative effect;  can  therefore  be  given  for  a  long  time.  *Theo- 
bromine  and  *theocine  have  the  same  action. 

2.  *Diuretin.  A  very  good  diuretic;  a  combination  of  theo- 
bromine with  sodium  salicylate.  Because  of  the  close  relationship  of 
theobromine  to  caffeine,  it  has  the  same  action  and  uses  as  caffeine. 
Large  dogs  may  be  given  up  to  5,  5i>  in  one  day.  *Agurin,  a  com- 
bination of  theobromine  with  sodium  acetate,  has  the  same  action. 

3.  Hydrarg3rri  chloridum  mite.  Calomel.  A  good  diuretic 
in  cardiac  dropsy;  to  be  preferred  to  digitalis  in  many  cases.  Dose 
for  dogs  of  medium  size,  0.1,  grs.  iss,  three  times  daily. 

4.  Acidum  saHcylicum,  sodii  salicylas.  Salicyhc  acid, 
sodium  salicylate.  Diuretic,  especially  in  muscular  and  articular 
rheumatism;  also  probably  disinfectant  for  the  kidneys,  renal 
pelvis  and  bladder.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  5-10,  5i  to  ijss, 
two  to  five  times  daily;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  iss  to  vij  (small  doses). 

5.  Digitalis.  The  oldest  and  a  very  valuable  diuretic  in  car- 
diac dropsy.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  2-5,  3ss  to  i;  dogs, 
0.1-0.3,  grs.  iss  to  iv.     Scilla  has  the  same  action. 

6.  Strophanthus.  A  powerful  diuretic  in  cardiac  dropsy;  acts 
more  promptly  than  digitalis.  Dose  of  tinctura  strophanthi  for 
horses,  10-25,  3  ijss  to  vj;  dogs,  10-25  drops. 

7.  Oleum  terebinthinae.  Turpentine  oil.  A  strong  and  cheap 
diuretic  for  dropsy  of  all  kinds.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  10-25, 
3 ijss  to  vj ;  sheep  and  goats,  2-5,  3ss  to  j ;  dogs,  0.2-0.5,  nuiij  to  vij. 

8.  *Jumperus.  Juniper.  A  good,  mild  diuretic  in  mechanical 
as  well  as  inflanmiatory  dropsies.  Dose  for  cattle,  50-100,  5  iss  to 
3  iij ;  horses,  25-50,  3  vj  to  xij ;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  2-5,  3  ss  to  j. 
Dose  of  oleum  juniperi,  same  as  oil  of  turpentine. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  GLANDS     117 

9.  Balsamum  peruvianum.  Balsam  of  Peru.  A  good  diuretic 
and  a  disinfectant  for  the  kidneys  and  bladder.  Dose  for  horses 
and  cattle,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  1-2,  grs. 
XV  to  XXX ;  dogs,  0.1-1,  grs.  iss  to  xv. 

10.  Diuretic  species.  Diuretic  teas  of  *ononis,  *ligusticuin 
and  *juniperus;  used  in  dropsies  in  dogs  and  cats.  Infusions  of 
25  parts  of  the  drug  in  300  of  water  are  given  in  tablespoonful  doses. 

11.  Sinapis  alba,  sinapis  nigra.  Mustard.  Mild  diuretics. 
Dose  for  cattle,  50-100,  5  iss  to  iij;  horses,  20-50,  5v  to  xij;  dogs, 
0.2-2,  grs.  iij  to  xxx. 

12.  Capsicum,  Piper,  Cubeba.  Stimulant  diuretics;  use  cau- 
tiously; contraindicated  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  Dose  for 
cattle,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  horses,  5-15,  5i  to  iv;  swine,  1-2,  grs. 
XV  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.2-0.5,  grs.  iij  to  vij. 

13.  Potassii  nitras.  Potassium  nitrate.  A  good  saHne  diu- 
retic in  kidney  and  bladder  affections,  also  in  general  dropsy.  Dose 
for  cattle,  10-25,  gijss  to  vj ;  horses,  8-15,  3ij  to  iv;  swine,  1-2,  grs. 
XV  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.2-0.5,  grs.  iij  to  vij. 

14.  Potassii  chloras.  Potassium  chlorate.  A  disinfectant 
diuretic  in  catarrh  of  the  bladder.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle, 
5-10,  5i  to  ijss;  sheep  and  goats,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.1-1, 
grs.  iss  to  XV. 

15.  Potassii  acetas,  sodii  acetas.  Potassium  acetate,  sodium 
acetate.  Uric  acid  solvents.  [Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  15-30 
5ss  to  i;  dogs,  0.3  to  1.3,  grs.  v  to  xx.] 

16.  Sodii  chloridum,  sodii  bicarbonas,  potassii  bitartras. 
Sodium  chloride,  sodium  bicarbonate,  potassium  bitartrate.  Mild 
diuretics,  which  render  the  urine  alkaline  and  neutralize  acidity. 
Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  25-100,  5vj  to  5 iij;  sheep,  goats  and 
swine,  2-5,  5ss  to  j;  dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 

17.  Sodii  boras.  Borax.  A  mild  diuretic,  also  disinfectant  to 
the  bladder  and  kidneys.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  10-25, 
5  ijss  to  vj ;  dogs,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx. 

18.  Saccharum  lactis.  Sugar  of  milk.  A  modem  diuretic  in 
cardiac  dropsy.  Dose  for  dogs,  25-100,  3vj  to  5 iij,  daily.  Milk 
diet. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS   OF  THE  DISEASES   OF   THE 
GENITAL  ORGANS 

General  Considerations. — Of  the  diseases  of  the  genital  organs, 
the  most  important  are  the  affections  of  the  uterus  and  udder. 
The  diseased  conditions  to  which  the  uterus  is  liable,  especially 
before,  during  and  after  parturition  (dystocias,  parturient  paresis, 
puerperal  septicaemia,  catarrh  of  the  uterus),  are  so  numerous  and 
so  widely  different  that  it  is  difficult  to  outline  general  principles  for 
their  treatment.  This  is  also  true  of  the  diverse  conditions  which 
affect  the  udder.  There  are,  however,  several  groups  of  medicines 
which  are  usually  given  special  consideration  in  the  general  thera- 
peutics of  the  diseases  of  the  genital  organs.  These  are  the 
ecbolics  (uterines),  the  aphrodisiacs,  and  the  galactagogues. 

With  regard  to  the  physiology  of  the  uterus,  it  is  to  be  observed 
in  connection  with  the  action  of  the  ecbolics  that  the  important 
nerve  centre  of  the  uterus  (principal  centre,  centre  of  parturition)  is 
situated  in  the  lumbar  cord  at  the  first  and  second  lumbar  vertebrae. 
The  uterus  may  be  stimulated  directly  and  indirectly,  centrally 
and  peripherally,  by  mechanical,  chemical,  thermic  and  electrical 
stimuli.  Mechanical  stimuli  include  pressure  and  blows  from  with- 
out, introduction  of  foreign  bodies  into  the  uterus  (the  hand,  sounds, 
instruments,  injected  fluids,  air),  escape  of  the  amniotic  fluid,  death 
of  the  foetus,  specific  uterine  catarrh  in  infectious  abortion,  hyper- 
aemia  and  anaemia.  Chemical  stimuli  are  the  specific  uterine  drugs 
(ergot,  hydrastis,  gossypium  and  amenyl),  and  an  excess  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  the  blood.  The  thermic  stimuli  are  cold  (e.g.j  reflexly 
from  the  stomach)  and  heat  (fever,  hot  vaginal  injections).  Con- 
tractions of  the  uterus  may  also  be  produced  by  electrical  stimula- 
tion of  the  centres,  the  sacral  plexus  and  the  ischiatic  nerve. 

Concerning  the  milk  secretion,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  gland 
cells  actively  participate  in  the  formation  of  the  specific  milk  con- 
stituents and  that  the  process  is  not  exclusively  one  of  transuda- 
tion, desquamation  of  epithelial  cells  and  fatty  metamorphosis. 
The  casein  and  the  milk  sugar  are  formed  entirely  in  the  gland 
118 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  ORGANS  119 

cells;  the  fat  is  in  part  derived  from  the  blood.  The  milk  secre- 
tion is  under  the  influence  of  secretory  and  vasomotor  nerves. 
The  quantity  and  composition  are  influenced  by  numerous  other 
factors,  as  feed,  breed,  age,  lactation  period,  time  of  day,  work,  and 
exercise  and  individuality.  On  this  account,  the  chemical  com- 
position is  very  variable.  The  average  water  content  is  87.5  per 
cent.;  the  average  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  is  12.5,  including  3.3  per 
cent,  fat,  4  per  cent,  protein,  4.5  per  cent,  sugar  and  0.7  per  cent, 
salts.  The  reaction  is  amphoteric,  due  to  the  presence  of  alkaline 
and  acid  salts.  Curdling  of  milk  may  result  from  different  causes 
(rennet  ferment,  lactic  acid  ferment,  acids,  mastitis). 

1.  ECBOLICS.     ABORTIVES 

Synonyms:  Uterines,  ectrotics,  amblotics,  pellentics,  odinegogues,  par- 
turefacients,  emmenagogues,  abortive  medicines,  expelling,  foetus-expelling 
medicines. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Drugs  exerting  a  specific  action  upon  the 
uterus  produce  either  a  contraction  or  hyperaemia  of  that  organ. 
The  result  of  the  action  differs  with  the  condition  of  the  uterus.  If 
the  uterus  is  in  the  act  of  contracting  upon  the  foetus  to  expel  it — 
i.e.,  if  the  period  of  pregnancy  has  terminated  and  labor  has  begun, 
— then  the  ecbolics  increase  the  force  of  the  contractions  and 
hasten  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus.  This  is  the  only  purpose  for 
which  they  are  of  value  in  veterinary  therapeutics.  They  are 
therefore  administered  not  before  but  (1)  during  parturition,  after 
the  beginning  of  labor  pains,  to  stimulate  insufficient  uterine  con- 
tractions in  difficult  parturition,  also  in  relaxation  of  the  muscles 
of  the  uterus,  and  (2)  after  parturition,  to  produce  contraction  of 
the  relaxed  puerperal  uterus  and  thereby  cause  the  more  prompt 
expulsion  of  the  fcetal  membranes. 

The  ecbolics  will  also  cause  abortion  when  the  full  term  of 
pregnancy  is  not  completed.  The  abortion  results  either  from 
the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  uterus,  or  from  pronounced 
hypersemia  of  the  uterus  with  hemorrhage  into  the  foetal  mem- 
branes and  into  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus.  But  the 
abortive  action  of  drugs  is  always  accompanied  by  other  effects 


120         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

dangerous  to  life  and  for  this  reason  they  are  no  longer  used  thera- 
peutically to  bring  about  abortion.  Instead,  mechanical  methods 
are  employed  exclusively  to  produce  an  artificial  abortion  or  pre- 
mature birth:  forcible  dilation  of  the  cervix,  puncture  of  the  fcetal 
membranes,  insertion  of  an  elastic  bougie  between  the  uterus  and 
the  membranes,  injections  between  the  uterus  and  foetus,  hot 
uterine  douches,  tamponading  the  vagina,  etc. 

The  ecbolics  also  act  upon  the  empty  uterus,  causing  contrac- 
tion of  the  uterus  in  metritis  and  checking  uterine  hemorrhage. 
Neoplasms  of  the  uterus  (myomas)  are  favorably  influenced. 
Promotion  of  menstruation  by  the  so-called  emmenagogues  is  only 
of  value  in  human  practice  in  the  treatment  of  the  different  men- 
struation anomalies  of  women. 

Drugs. — 1.  Ergota.  Ergot.  An  excellent  ecbolic  in  difficult 
parturition  and  in  retention  of  the  foetal  membranes;  also  a  styptic 
in  uterine  hemorrhage,  and  a  specific  against  myomas  of  the  uterus. 
Dose  for  cattle,  25-50,  5  vj  to  xij ;  horses,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj ;  sheep, 
goats  and  swine,  2-5,  5ss  to  j;  dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx;  cats, 
0.2-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv;  fowl  (retention  of  eggs),  0.2-0.5,  grs.  iij  to  vij. 

2.  Hydrastis.  An  ecbolic  for  weak  labor  and  uterine  hemor- 
rhages. [Dose  of  fluidextractum  hydrastis  for  horses  and  cows,  8-30, 
5ij  to  Si;  sheep  and  swine,  4-8,  5i  to  ij;  dogs,  0.3-4,  ttuv  to  5i.] 

2.  DRUGS  THAT  STIMULATE  THE  SEXUAL  IMPULSE 
APHRODISIACS 
Synonym :    Erotics . 

Actions  and  Uses. — ^Artificial  stimulation  of  the  sexual  impulse 
is  required  in  phlegmatic,  fat  or  diseased  males  and  females  when 
the  sexual  desire  is  below  normal.  Relaxation  and  weakening  of 
the  body  as  a  result  of  irrational  feeding  or  stabling,  previously 
existing  disease,  overexertion,  breeding  too  young,  breeding  too 
frequently,  masturbation,  and  the  different  diseases  of  the  genital 
apparatus  are  the  usual  causes. 

The  action  of  aphrodisiacs  is  exerted  in  different  ways.  Liberal 
feeding  of  foods  rich  in  nitrogen  and  the  iron  preparations  operate 
in  a  purely  dietetic  way;  fat  and  phlegmatic  animals,  on  the  con- 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  ORGANS  121 

trary,  require  the  withdrawal  of  food,  cathartics  and  metabolic 
stimulants.  The  specific  erotics  produce  a  hypersemia,  blood 
infiltration,  and  increased  turgescence,  and,  in  consequence,  a 
highly  stimulated  condition  of  the  ovaries  and  testicles  and  the 
vaginal  or  urethral  mucous  membranes.  Yohimbin,  cantharides, 
the  acrid  spices,  alcohol,  santonin,  the  ethereal  oils,  resins  and 
balsams  operate  in  this  way. 

Drugs. — *  Yohimbin.  A  specific  against  breeding-impotence 
in  bulls  and  stallions  and  decreased  sexual  impulse  and  sterility  in 
cows  and  mares.  Only  chemically  pure  preparations  should  be 
used,  the  so-called  veterinary  preparations  being  avoided;  very 
expensive  (IJ^  grains,  75  cents).  Dose  per  os  for  horses  and 
cattle,  0.05,  gr.  %]  dogs,  0.001-0.002,  gr.  1/70  to  1/40;  subcu- 
taneously  for  horses  and  cattle,  0.02-0.05,  gr.  J^  to  J^;  sheep,  goats 
and  swine,  0.005-0.01,  gr.  3/40  to  1/8;  dogs  and  chickens,  0.0005- 
0.001,  gr.  1/140  to  1/70;  canary  birds,  0.0001,  gr.  1/660. 

2.  Cantharis.  Cantharides.  An  aphrodisiac  for  cows  in  which 
oestrum  is  a;bnormally  weak ;  administer  cautiously.  Dose  for  cows, 
2-5,  5  ss  to  i,  per  day ;  horses,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx.  Dose  of  tinctura 
cantharidis  for  cows,  20,  5v;  horses,  10,  5ijss;  dogs,  drop  doses. 

3.  Piper,  Capsicum,  Cubeba,  Zingiber  Santonica,  etc.     Dot 
for  cattle,  10-25,  5ijss  to  vj;  horses,  5-15,  5i  to  iij. 

4.  Alcohol.  In  small  repeated  doses;  horses  and  cattle,  20-50, 
5v  to  xij,  (20-150,  5v  to  Sv,  spiritus  vini  gallici;  3^  to  1  hter, 
Oi  to  ij,  vinum  album). 

5.  Santoninum.  Santonin.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  10-25, 
5ijss  to  vj. 

*Jumperus,  carum,  matricaria,  aloe  and  other  drugs  are  also 
used  as  erotics,  but  their  action  is  uncertain. 

3.  DRUGS  THAT  DEPRESS  THE  SEXUAL  IMPULSE 
ANAPHRODISIACS 
Synon3nns:     Antaphrodisiacs,  anterotics. 

Actions  and  Uses. — An  excessive  sexual  impulse  (nympho- 
mania, satyriasis)  occurs  most  frequently  in  cows  (bulling)  in 
consequence  of  pathological  changes  in  the  genital  organs,  espe- 


122        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

cially  the  ovaries  and  uterus.  In  stallions,  the  sexual  desire  is 
increased  in  cryptorchids  and  masturbators.  The  action  of  the 
anterotics  consists  of  a  soothing  effect  upon  the  nerves  of  the  sexual 
organs.  All  sedative  neurotics  are  therefore  anaphrodisiacs,  par- 
ticularly potassium  bromide,  chloral  hydrate,  and  morphine.  A 
restricted  diet  and  cathartics  may  also  be  prescribed  in  addition. 
A  certain  and  permanent  removal  of  abnormal  sexual  impulse  can  be 
accomplished  as  a  rule  only  by  operative  methods  (castration,  crypt- 
orchid  operation,  ovariotomy,  rectal  compression  of  ovarian  cysts). 
Drugs. — 1.  Potassii  bromidum.  Potassium  bromide.  A  very 
good  anaphrodisiac,  especially  for  nymphomania  in  cows.  Dose 
for  horses  and  cattle,  20-50  (up  to  150  per  day),  5v  to  xij  (up  to 
5v  per  day);  dogs,  0.25-2  (up  to  10  per  day),  grs.  iv  to  xxx  (up  to 
5ijss  per  day);  cats,  0.25-0.5  (up  to  2  per  day),  grs.  iv  to  vij  (up 
to  grs.  xxx  per  day). 

2.  Chloralum  hydratum.  Chloral  hydrate.  Uses  and  doses 
same  as  potassium  bromide. 

3.  Morphinae  sulphas.  Morphine  sulphate  is  not  always  relia- 
ble, especially  for  cattle;  recommended  in  combination  with  chloral 
hydrate.  Dose,  subcutaneously,  for  horses,  0.5,  grs.  vij;  dogs, 
0.02-0.1,  grs.  Ji  to  iss. 

Mild  laxatives,  bleeding,  hunger  and  exercise  also  have  ante- 
rotic  effects. 

4.  DRUGS  THAT  INCREASE  MILK  SECRETION 
GALACTAGOGUES 
Synonyms:     Lactics,  galactics,  stimulants  to  milk  secretion. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  so-called  milk  defects,  which  are  due 
to  abnormal  feeding,  gastro-intestinal  catarrh  and  other  diseased 
conditions,  udder  diseases  and  various  external  influences,  are  of 
especial  practical  consideration  in  cattle  practice.  Those  best 
known  are  agalactia  (absence  of  milk),  watery  milk,  excessively 
fat  milk,  premature  curdling,  failure  of  milk  to  ''  butter, "  putrid, 
soapy  and  slimy  (viscid)  milk,  blue,  red  and  yellow  milk. 

The  latter  defects  are  due  to  external  infection  and  are  there- 
fore  to  be   combated  with   antiseptics.     With  reference  to  the 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  ORGANS  123 

action  of  the  specific  galactagogues,  a  distinction  must  be  made 
between  those  which  act  upon  the  general  condition  and  those 
which  act  directly  upon  the  udder.  Drugs  belonging  to  the  first 
category  are  called  indirect  galactagogues  and  those  of  the  second 
direct  galactagogues.  Since  the  greater  number  of  the  milk  defects 
result  from  digestive  disturbances  and  general  diseases,  an  im- 
provement in  the  milk  secretion  can  be  brought  about  indirectly  by 
treating  these  diseases.  The  indirect  galactagogues  include  par- 
ticularly the  aromatics,  bitters  and  alkalies,  which  by  their  gastric 
action  promote  digestion  and  in  consequence  increase  the  forma- 
tion of  the  milk  constituents.  Cutaneous  stimulation,  directly 
applied  to  the  udder,  stimulates  the  gland  secretion  reflexly,  and  is 
therefore  also  an  indirect  galactagogue.  It  is  well  known  that 
frequent  milking  increases  the  milk  production  by  stimulating  the 
secretory  nerves  of  the  gland.  This  is  also  true  of  electric  stimula- 
tion, as  has  been  demonstrated  by  faradization  of  the  udder. 
Rubbing  the  udder  with  stinging  nettle,  as  is  done  in  many  coun- 
tries (goat  herds  in  Verona),  has  the  same  effect.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  antimony  preparations  and  sulphur  are  direct  galacta- 
gogues, as  might  be  expected  from  their  stimulant  action  upon  the 
other  glands  of  the  body.  The  effect  of  these  drugs  in  increasing 
the  milk  secretion  is  probably  the  result  of  direct  action  upon  the 
secreting  cells  of  the  udder.  To  what  extent  other  galactagogues 
stimulate  milk  secretion  by  increasing  the  blood-pressure  (see  the 
experiment  by  Rohrig  below)  or  by  acting  upon  the  secretory 
nerves  of  the  gland  has  not  at  this  time  been  determined  with  cer- 
tainty. But  it  is  probable  that  with  the  secretion  of  milk,  as 
with  the  similar  secretory  processes  of  diuresis  and  diaphoresis,  it 
must  be  assumed  that  medicines  operate  in  several  ways  to  in- 
crease the  activity  of  the  udder. 

Experimental  Investigations  of  the  Actions  of  the  Galacta- 
gogues.— The  knowledge  concerning  the  action  of  medicines  upon 
the  milk  secretion,  quantitatively  and  qualitatively,  is  far  less  com- 
plete than  that  relating  to  the  other  secretions,  e.g.,  diuresis.  In 
the  first  place,  a  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  popular,  em- 
pirical views  regarding  the  action  of  certain  drugs  upon  the  secre- 


124        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tion  of  milk  and  the  conclusions  based  upon  exact  pnarmacological 
experiments.  In  veterinary  medicine,  the  following  drugs  have 
been  for  a  long  time  regarded  as  galactagogues :  the  different  aro- 
matics,  particularly  fennel,  anise,  caraway,  juniper  berries,  corian- 
der, dill,  fine-leaved  water  hemlock,  pimpinella,  calamus,  the 
bitter  stomachics  (yarrow  and  gentian),  sulphur,  the  neutral  salts, 
the  antimony  preparations  (sulphurated  antimony,  antimony), 
and  others.  These  drugs  are  the  chief  constituents  of  the  popular 
milk  powders.  In  human  medicine,  the  leaves  of  polygala  vul- 
garis, galega  officinalis  and  the  castor-bean  plant  are  recognized 
as  galactagogues,  while  iodine,  belladonna,  quinine  and  alum,  to- 
gether with  external  appUcations  of  opodeldoc,  are  chiefly  used  as 
anti-galactagogues.  •  According  to  Niebuhr,  in  many  sections  of 
Germany  oil  of  rosemary,  a  constituent  of  opodeldoc,  is  rubbed  on 
the  udder  of  cows  to  reduce  the  milk  secretion  with  good  results. 
Applications  of  oil  of  hemp  have  a  similar  effect.  The  results  of 
experiments  with  the  individual  galactagogues  and  anti-galacta- 
gogues are  very  contradictory.  The  most  important  of  these 
investigations  are  the  following: 

Experiments  to  test  the  power  of  iodine  to  reduce  the  milk 
secretion  were  made  by  Labourdette  (Gazette  des  Hopitaux,  1856). 
He  found  that  after  the  administration  of  potassium  iodide  to 
cows,  goats  and  asses,  the  milk  secretion  was  at  first  somewhat  in- 
creased (1/10  to  1/8),  then  rapidly  decreased,  and  finally  in  the 
course  of  2  to  3  months,  under  the  continued  action  of  potassium 
iodide,  ceased  entirely,  the  experimental  animal  becoming  very 
much  emaciated.  When  daily  doses  of  3  to  6  grams  of  potassium 
iodide  were  given,  the  milk  contained  up  to  34  gram  per  liter,  and 
the  drug  could  be  demonstrated  in  the  milk  12  days  after  the 
administration  of  the  last  dose.  A  slight,  primary  increase  in  the 
milk  secretion  after  the  administration  of  potassium  iodide  was 
also  observed  by  Lewald.  Bouley  (Bulletin  de  T Academic,  1859) 
reported  a  long  series  of  experiments  with  potassium  iodide  in 
which  the  milk  was  not  changed  quantitatively  and  was  otherwise 
in  good  condition,  but  after  curdling  it  had  a  rubber-like  elasticity 
and  plasticity.     Stumpf  demonstrated  that  5  grams  of  potassium 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  ORGANS  125 

iodide  daily  caused  a  considerable  decrease  of  the  milk  secretion  in 
goats  in  consequence  of  a  disturbance  of  the  gland  function.  Alco- 
hol (up  to  100  c.c.)  and  alcoholic  drinks  (1-2  liters  of  beer)  pro- 
duced no  change  in  the  quantity  of  milk  secreted  by  goats,  but 
increased  the  relative  fat  content.  Morphine,  pilocarpine  and 
lead  salts  had  no  effect  on  the  quantity  or  quality  of  the  milk. 
Salicylic  acid  appeared  to  increase  somewhat  the  quantity  of  milk 
and  the  sugar  content.  Rohrig,  in  his  experiments  on  goats  (Vir- 
chow's  Archiv.,  Bd.  57),  observed  no  alteration  of  the  milk  secre- 
tion even  after  very  large  doses  of  morphine  (up  to  1.2).  On  the 
other  hand,  he  reports  a  considerable  acceleration  in  the  milk 
secretion  after  the  administration  of  jaborandi  leaves  (pilocarpine), 
a  result  which  is  disputed  by  other  experimenters  (Partsch,  Heiden- 
hain)  who  obtained  negative  results  in  similar  experiments.  After 
the  administration  of  drugs  which  increase  blood-pressure  (strych- 
nine, caffeine,  digitalis),  Rohrig  observed  an  increase  in  the  quan- 
tity of  milk,  while  the  amount  was  decreased  when  drugs  were 
given  which  reduce  blood-pressure  (potassium  bromide,  chloral 
hydrate,  etc.).  According  to  Feser  (Jahresbericht  der  Miinchener 
Tierarzneischule,  1885, 1889  and  1890),  the  milk  secretion  of  healthy 
cows  was  slightly  increased  after  the  injection  of  eserine  and  pilo- 
carpine; a  greater  increase  occurred  in  his  experiments  with  eseri- 
din.  Feeding  experiments  conducted  by  him,  in  which  the  milk 
of  these  cows  was  fed  to  swine,  demonstrated  that  milk  from  cows 
treated  with  eserine  could  be  fed  to  swine  without  any  disad- 
vantage whatever.  Hess,  Schaffer  and  Bondzynsky  (Landw. 
Jahrb.  der  Schweiz,  1888)  tested  the  effect  of  fennel,  calamus, 
anise,  caraway,  juniper  berries  and  gentian  upon  the  milk  secretion 
of  healthy  cows  and  goats  and  found  that  even  very  large  doses  of 
these  drugs  had  no  real  influence  upon  the  quantity  or  quahty  of 
the  milk.  The  drugs  mentioned  were  not  perceptible  in  the  milk 
through  any  change  of  taste  or  odor.  Only  in  the  case  of  fennel, 
the  odor  of  the  drug  was  observed  in  an  alcohol-ether  extract  of 
the  milk.  Frohner's  own  experiments  (Monatshefte  fiir  prak- 
tische  Tierheilkunde,  1891)  with  sodium  bicarbonate,  sulphur,  sul- 
phurated antimony,  juniper  berries,  atropine  and  pilocarpine  on 


126        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

six  healthy  cows  of  different  breeds,  namely,  Dutch,  Dithmarsch, 
Simmenthaler,  Swiss,  Wilstermarsch  and  Shorthorn,  and  on  two 
healthy  goats,  were  also  entirely  negative.  Fingerling  (Landw. 
Versuchstat.,  1907)  found  in  his  experiments  with  goats  that  odor- 
ous and  tasty  substances  increased  the  secretion  of  the  milk  gland, 
while  others  do  not;  for  instance,  the  addition  of  oil  of  fennel  or  of 
sodium  chloride  to  mixed  feed  increases  the  fat  per  cent,  as  well 
as  the  quantity  of  milk,  but  the  addition  of  arsenic  has  no  effect. 
According  to  Kronacher  (Berl.  Tierarztl.  Woch.,  1910)  the  milk 
secretion  is  increased  by  yohimbin. 

The  explanation  of  the  contradictory  results  of  these  experi- 
mental investigations  is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  the  following  cir- 
cumstances. It  is  to  be  noted  first  of  all  that  the  experiments  of 
all  of  the  investigators  were  made  on  healthy  animals.  In  practice, 
however,  the  galactagogues  are  not  administered  to  healthy  but  to 
diseased  animals.  As  is  well  known,  the  action  of  a  drug  upon 
a  healthy  animal  is  often  different  from  its  action  on  a  diseased 
animal.  The  failure  of  a  drug  to  act  on  healthy  animals  does  not 
prove  it  to  be  ineffective  on  diseased  animals.  This  very  impor- 
tant principle  has  often  been  overlooked  in  therapeutics.  The 
value  of  the  bitters  as  stomachics,  for  example,  would  have  to  be 
denied,  if  this  principle  is  not  accepted,  because  they  have  an  indif- 
ferent effect  on  normal  digestion.  Empiricism  teaches  that  the 
bitters  possess  a  superior  gastric  action  only  in  disturbed  digestion, 
and  this  is  confirmed  by  clinical  experiments.  An  entirely  similar 
condition  exists  with  regard  to  the  antipyretics,  which,  as  is  well 
known,  only  reduce  an  elevated  and  not  the  normal  body  temper- 
ature. It  should  not,  therefore,  be  assumed  that  the  galacta- 
gogues are  without  effect  in  disturbed  lactation  because  of  the  nega- 
tive results  of  experiments  on  healthy  animals.  Furthermore, 
some  observers  have  actually  obtained  positive  results  from  the 
administration  of  galactagogues  to  healthy  animals. 

Drugs. — 1.  *Antimonii  sulphidum.  Black  sulphide  of  antimony. 
A  much-used  galactagogue  in  agalactia  of  cows  and  goats.  Dose 
for  cows,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj;  goats,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx. 

2.  Sulphur  lotum,  sulphur  praecipitatum,  sulphur  sublimatiun. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  ORGANS  127 

Sulphur.     Combined  with  the  previous  drug  in  milk  powders. 
Dose  for  cows,  2-5,  3ss  to  j;  goats,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv. 

3.  Anisum,  foeniculum,  carum,  *jumperus.  Empirical  galacta- 
gogues  in  different  milk  defects.  Dose  for  cattle,  25-50,  3vj  to 
xii;  goats,  2-5,  5ss  to  j. 

4.  Sodii  chloridum,  sodii  bicarbonas.  Sodium  chloride, 
sodium  bicarbonate.  Galactagogues  in  all  milk  defects,  the  latter 
especially  in  premature  curdling;  usually  combined  with  those 
previously  mentioned.  Dose  for  cattle,  50-100,  5  iss  to  iij ;  goats, 
5-10,  5i  to  ijss. 

5.  DRUGS  THAT  DEPRESS  MILK  SECRETION 
ANTIGALACTAGOGUES 
Synonyms:    AntigaJactics,  lactifuges,  alactics. 

Actions  and  Uses. — An  excessive  production  of  milk  occurs  in 
some  animals,  especially  non-pregnant  bitches  in  oestrum,  which  at 
times  requires  therapeutic  interference.  A  cessation  of  the  milk 
flow  may  be  desired  in  cows  for  purely  economical  reasons,  as  when 
the  animal  is  to  be  fattened  for  the  butcher.  Artificial  reduction 
of  the  milk  secretion  also  becomes  necessary  in  mares  and  bitches 
when  lactation  persists  after  the  death  or  removal  of  their  offspring. 
As  antigalactagogues,  laxatives,  potassium  iodide,  tannin  and  alum 
may  be  tried,  in  addition  to  reducing  the  feed  and  gradually 
increasing  the  intervals  between  milking  and  finally  stopping. 
Local  applications  of  oil  of  rosemary  or  oil  of  hemp  to  the  udder  are 
also  recommended  for  cattle.  The  action  in  the  first  case  is  an 
inhibitory  effect  upon  the  secretion  and  in  the  latter  probably  a 
derivative  effect  (see  p.  124). 

Drug. — ^Potassii  iodidum.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  5-15, 
5i  to  iv;  dogs,  0.25-0.5,  grs.  iv  to  vij. 


GENERAL    THERAPEUTICS    OF    THE    GLANDS     (DU- 
PHORETICS  AND  SIALAGOGUES) 

Physiology. — The  glands,  especially  the  sweat,  salivary  and 
mucous  glands,  are,  as  secretory  organs,  of  great  importance  in 
therapeutics  because  their  physiological  activity  can  be  artificially 
increased  for  curative  purposes.  This  physiological  activity  con- 
sists in  the  secretion  of  water,  and  also  of  specific  and  pathological 
constituents,  which  are  eliminated  from  the  body  with  the  gland 
secretions.  The  secretion  is  the  result  of  an  active  function  of 
the  gland  cells,  which  is  under  the  influence  of  specific  secretory 
nerves,  and  is  not  a  mere  filtration.  For  this  reason  drugs  acting 
specifically  upon  the  glands  (arecoline,  pilocarpine)  are  required 
to  artificially  stimulate  the  gland  secretion,  while  drugs  which  only 
increase  the  blood-pressure  (digitalis)  and  thereby  promote  filtra- 
tion are  without  effect.  The  gland  secretions  are  indirectly  influ- 
enced, however,  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  blood  and  its 
rate  of  flow,  and  also  by  the  dilation  and  contraction  of  the  blood- 
vessels (vasomotor  nervous  system). 

The  sweat  glands  are  especially  well  developed  in  the  horse. 
The  general  sweat  centre  is  situated  in  the  medulla  oblongata, 
and  there  are  also  special  centres  for  the  anterior  extremity  in  the 
end  of  the  cervical  cord  and  for  the  posterior  extremity  in  the 
lumbar  cord.  The  secretory  fibres  pass  from  the  centres  to  the 
sweat  glands  by  way  of  the  motor  nerves.  The  secretion  of  sweat 
can  be  increased  by  direct  stimulation  of  the  centres  (increase  of  the 
body  temperature,  fever,  diaphoretics)  or  by  reflex  stimulation  (cu- 
taneous irritation,  various  thermic  and  electrical  stimuli,  increased 
muscular  activity).  The  most  important  constituents  of  normal 
sweat  in  addition  to  water  (97.5  to  99.5  per  cent.)  are  urea,  volatile 
fatty  acids  (formic,  acetic,  butyric,  caproic  and  caprylic  acids)  and 
salts  (sodium  chloride,  potassium  chloride,  sodium  and  potassium 
phosphate,  sodium  and  potassium  sulphate  and  calcium,  magne- 
sium and  iron  compounds) .  The  average  amount  of  sweat  secreted 
128 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  GLANDS      129 

daily  by  horses  at  work  is  10  to  20  liters;  this  amount  can  be  in- 
creased three-fold  with  arecoline  or  pilocarpine.  The  salivary 
glands  (parotid,  submaxillary,  sublingual,  glands  of  the  cheeks, 
lips  and  gums)  are  connected  with  nerve  centres  in  the  medulla 
oblongata  and  brain.  Their  peripheral  secretory  nerves  are  the 
facial,  sympathetic  and  glossopharyngeal;  vasomotor  and  motor 
nerves  are  also  present.  The  secretion  of  saliva  is  increased  directly 
by  the  stimulation  of  the  salivary  centres  and  nerves  (arecoline, 
pilocarpine)  and  reflexly  by  the  ingestion  of  food,  by  mechanical, 
chemical,  thermic  and  electrical  stimulation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth  and  stomach;  also  by  stimulation  of  the  splanch- 
nic nerves.  The  constituents  of  saliva,  in  addition  to  water 
(98  to  99.5  per  cent.),  are  ptyalin,  albumin,  mucin  and  salts  (so- 
dium chloride,  sodium  carbonate,  phosphates,  sulphates,  potas- 
sium sulphocyanide).  The  normal  saUvary  secretion  of  the 
horse  amounts  to  10  to  40  liters;  by  artificial  stimulation  with  are- 
coline and  pilocarpine  this  quantity  can  be  obtained  in  a  few  hours 
(laminitis). 

1.  DRUGS  THAT  STIMULATE  THE  SECRETION  OF  SWEAT 
DIAPHORETICS 

Synonyms:    Hidrotics,  sudorifics,  diapnoics. 

Actions. — The  drugs  which  stimulate  the  secretion  of  sweat 
cause  an  increased  evaporation  (diapnoics)  or  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  visible,  watery  sweat  secreted  by  stimulation  of  either 
the  peripheral  nerves  of  the  sweat  glands,  the  sweat  centres  in  the 
medulla  or  the  secretory  cells  of  the  glands;  by  depression  of  the 
inhibitory  nerves,  or  by  dilation  and  relaxation  of  the  cutaneous 
vessels  and  consequent  hyperaemia  of  the  skin.  Those  which 
operate  upon  the  nerves  or  cells  of  the  sweat  glands  (hidrotics) 
may  be  designated  as  direct  diaphoretics.  To  this  group  belong 
arecoline,  pilocarpine  and  ammonium  acetate.  Indirect  dia- 
phoretics, which  first  produce  hypersBmia  of  the  skin  and  then 
increased  diaphoresis  (sudorifics),  include  warm  water  internally 
and  moist  heat  externally.     Finally,  sweating  is  also  stimulated 

reflexly  by  emetics. 
9 


130  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

The  effects  of  increased  secretion  of  sweat  upon  the  organism 
are  very  numerous.  The  most  important  is  the  loss  of  water  from 
the  body.  This  causes,  like  diuresis  and  catharsis,  a  resorption 
of  fluids  contained  in  the  tissues  or  body  cavities.  At  the  same 
time  there  is  a  derivation  of  the  blood  from  the  internal  organs  to 
the  skin,  with  increased  dissipation  of  heat  from  the  latter  and  a 
consequent  fall  of  the  internal  temperature  (critical  sweat  of 
febrile  diseases).  The  secretory  activity  of  the  kidneys  is  re- 
lieved, the  excretion  of  urea  and  other  metabolic  products  through 
the  skin  is  increased  and  the  body  weight  is  reduced,  while  the 
activity  of  the  heart  is  lessened  because  of  the  decrease  in  the  vol- 
ume of  the  blood.  Moreover,  bacteria  and  their  toxins,  grape 
sugar,  bile  pigments,  drugs  and  poisons  (mercury,  lead,  iodine, 
bromide)  are  eliminated  from  the  blood  through  the  sweat. 

Uses. — Since  the  introduction  of  pilocarpine  and  arecoline,  the 
diaphoretics  are  of  greater  therapeutic  importance  in  veterinary 
medicine,  especially  in  equine  practice.  The  most  important  dis- 
eases in  which  they  are  indicated  are  the  following: 

(a)  Dropsical  conditions  in  the  course  of  heart,  lung,  liver  and 
kidney  diseases,  particularly  hydrocephalus,  ascites,  hydrothorax, 
and  hydropericardium,  pleuritic  and  peritoneal  exudates,  and 
exudative  inflammation  of  the  articulations. 

(b)  Laminitis  and  articular  and  muscular  rheumatism. 

(c)  Diseases  of  the  kidneys,  especially  oliguria,  anuria  and 
uraemia  occurring  in  the  course  of  severe  inflammation  of  the  kid- 
neys. 

(d)  Chronic  poisonings  (mercury,  lead). 

(e)  Tetanus,  cerebrospinal  meningitis,  parturient  apoplexy. 

Drugs. — 1.  Pilocarpine.  In  large  doses,  a  powerful  dia- 
phoretic; specific  in  laminitis  in  horses,  also  in  muscular  rheu- 
matism; superior  resorbent  for  all  dropsies,  transudates  and  exu- 
dates, particularly  in  acute  hydrocephalus  of  the  horse.  Dose  of 
pilocarpinae  hydrochloridimi  (subcutaneously)  for  horses  is  0.5-0.8 
(!),  grs.  vij  to  xii  (!).  The  hidrotic  action  will  be  promoted  by 
rubbing  and  warm,  moist  (vinegar)  coverings.  A  rather  expensive 
drug. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  GLANDS      131 

2.  *Arecoline.  Also  a  powerful  diaphoretic  and  a  specific 
against  laminitis;  to  be  preferred  to  pilocarpine  because  less  expen- 
sive (compare  the  dose)  and  more  stable.  Dose  of  *arecolinaB 
hydrobromidum  for  the  horse  (subcutaneously),  0.05-0.1,  grs. 
?^  to  iss. 

3.  Hot  infusions  of  the  aromatics:  matricaria,  *flores  tiUae, 
*sambuci  fiores,  mentha  piperita,  and  *melissa.  These  'dia- 
phoretics of  the  old  therapeutics  are  still  sometimes  employed, 
e.g.  J  in  rheumatic  colic  of  the  horse.  Their  diaphoretic  action  is 
due  principally  to  the  warm  water  which  the  infusions  contain. 
They  are  still  very  conamonly  used  in  human  medicine. 

4.  Washing  the  skin  with  vinegar  and  then  applying  a  Priess- 
nitz  dressing.  A  very  good  method  of  assisting  the  action  of  pilo- 
carpine and  arecoline. 

5.  *Ammonii  acetas  is  sometimes  prescribed  internally  as  a 
diaphoretic.  Dose  for  the  horse,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj.  [Liquor  am- 
monii  acetatis,  spirit  of  mindererus,  contains  about  7  per  cent,  of 
ammonium  acetate.  Dose  for  the  horse,  60-120,  5ij  to  iv;  dogs, 
8-30,  3ii  to  viij.] 

2.  DRUGS  THAT  STIMULATE  THE  SECRETION  OF  SALIVA 
SIALAGOGUES 

Synonyms:     Sialics,  ptyalogogues,  masticatives,  masticatorics. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Of  the  drugs  known  at  this  time,  only  pilo- 
carpine and  arecoline  really  possess  a  pronounced  specific  effect 
upon  the  salivary  glands.  These  drugs  stimulate  the  peripheral 
nerves  of  the  saHvary  glands  and  the  salivary  centre  and  thereby 
increase  the  secretion  of  saliva  to  a  great  degree  and  for  some 
time,  even  when  given  in  small  doses.  Eserine  and  muscarine  are 
similar  in  action  but  much  weaker. 

The  effects  resulting  from  an  increased  secretion  of  saliva  are 
very  similar  to  those  produced  by  diaphoresis.  Of  special  impor- 
tance in  therapeutics  is  the  circumstance  that  a  large  amount  of 
water  is  withdrawn  from  the  body,  the  blood  therefore  becoming 
thicker  and  the  resorption  of  transportable  fluids  in  the  body  being 
thereby  promoted.     A  horse,  for  example,  will  lose  20  to  30  liters 


132         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

of  water  in  a  short  time.  Sialagogues  are  consequently  specific  for 
all  dropsies,  transudates  and  fluid  exudates.  They  have  an  abor- 
tive action  against  laminitis  (arecoline),  act  as  derivatives  in  dis- 
eases of  the  brain  and  kidneys  and  serve  to  eliminate  poisons  from 
the  body. 

Antisialagogues  are  drugs  which  reduce  an  abnormally  in- 
creased secretion  of  saliva  (salivation).  The  most  important  are 
atropine  and  hyoscine  (scopolamine).  The  same  drugs  also  at  the 
same  time  reduce  an  abnormally  increased  sweat  secretion  and  are 
therefore  called  antihidrotics.  To  the  latter  class  belong  also 
agaricin  and  camphoric  acid. 

Drugs. — 1 .  Pilocarpinae  hydrochloridum.  Specific  sialagogue  in 
dropsical  conditions.  Dose  (1/5  the  diaphoretic  dose):  horses, 
0.1-0.2,  grs.  iss  to  iij;  cattle,  0.2-0.4,  grs.  iij  to  vj;  sheep  and  goats, 
0.01,  gr.  1/8;  dogs,  0.005-0.02,  gr.  3/40  to  M-  Use  cautiously 
when  heart  disease  is  present. 

2.  *ArecolinaB  hydrobromidum.  Also  a  specific  sialagogue; 
especially  effective  in  laminitis  and  acute  hydrocephalus.  The 
dose  of  arecoline  is  five  to  ten  times  less  than  that  of  pilocarpine; 
for  horses,  0.02-0.05,  grs.  M  to  M- 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  DISEASES  OF 
METABOLISM 

Physiology. — The  treatment  of  the  so-called  metabolic  dis- 
eases (diabetes  mellitus,  obesity,  gout,  chronic  disturbances  of 
nutrition)  must  be  based  upon  the  physiology  of  metabohsm. 
Metabolism  can  be  influenced  principally  in  a  dietetic  way.  The 
chief  nutritive  materials  used  for  this  purpose  are  albumin,  fat  and 
the  carbohydrates,  in  addition  to  water  and  salts. 

In  reference  to  albumin,  physiology  teaches  that  the  more 
albumin  that  is  introduced  into  the  body  the  more  is  decomposed. 
Feeding  albumin  in  abundance  therefore  only  increases  the  total 
albumin  decomposition  and  does  not  increase  the  amount  stored  up. 
A  real  strengthening  of  the  body,  i.e.,  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
organic  albumin,  does  not  result  from  a  pure  albumin  diet,  con- 
trary to  the  usual  assumption.  Such  a  diet  only  temporarily  in- 
creases the  amount  of  circulating  albumin  in  the  blood.  If  organic 
albumin  is  to  be  stored  up  in  the  body,  which  is  the  object  aimed  at 
in  the  treatment  of  chronic  disturbances  of  nutrition,  then  fats 
or  carbohydrates  must  be  given  with  the  albumin.  The  presence 
of  fats  and  carbohydrates  limits  the  albumin  decomposition  in 
both  healthy  and  diseased  animal  bodies. 

The  fat  taken  into  the  body  is  partly  stored  up  and  partly 
decomposed.  The  fat  deposited  in  the  body  is  derived  principally 
from  the  fat  in  the  food  and  only  to  a  slight  degree  from  the  al- 
bumin. In  emaciation,  therefore,  the  deposition  of  fat  can  be 
attained  only  by  feeding  an  increased  amount  of  fat  and  not  by 
increasing  the  albumin  in  the  diet.  On  the  contrary,  reduction 
can  be  obtained  in  obesity  by  an  exclusively  albuminous  diet  (Bant- 
ing treatment)  or  by  withdrawing  fat  and  carbohydrates  from  the 
ration. 

133 


134         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

The  carbohydrates  serve  in  the  first  place  as  heat-producing 
material  for  the  body  (exercise).  Increased  ingestion  of  carbo- 
hydrates decreases  the  decomposition  of  albumin  and  fat.  They 
are  consequently  an  important  dietetic  material  in  the  treatment 
of  chronic  disturbances  of  nutrition  accompanied  by  emaciation 
(with  the  exception  of  obesity  and  diabetes  mellitus,  in  which  the 
carbohydrates  should  be  withheld  as  completely  as  possible). 

A  stimulating  influence  upon  metabolism  is  exerted  by  mus- 
cular activity  and  exercise  (increased  oxidation  of  carbohydrates 
and  isitSj  not  the  albumins),  cutaneous  irritation,  salts  (sodium 
chloride,  sodium  bicarbonate,  sodium  sulphate),  alcohol,  and 
arsenic  and  phosphorus  in  small  doses.  See  also  therapeutics  of 
the  glands. 

In  the  general  therapeutics  of  the  diseases  of  metabolism,  the 
remedies  are  usually  divided  into  plastics,  antiplastics  (removal  of 
fat)  and  nutrients. 

1.  PLASTIC  REMEDIES.    PLASTICS 

Synonyms:  Nutrients,  euplastics,  antatrophics,  antidepertitorics;  foods, 
blood  plastics,  bone  plastics. 

Definition  and  Classification. — Plastics  are  substances  which 
participate  directly  or  indirectly  in  the  construction  and  building 
up  of  the  animal  body.  They  can  be  subdivided  into  blood 
plastics  (see  p.  63),  bone  plastics,  muscle  plastics,  etc.,  correspond- 
ing to  the  individual  organs.  They  can  also  be  classified  as  foods 
and  medicinal  plastics. 

(a)  The  foods  (dietetic  remedies  in  the  restricted  sense)  are 
naturally  the  most  important  plastics.  In  therapeutics,  less  con- 
sideration is  given  to  the  food  as  such  than  to  an  effort  to  supply 
the  usual  food  in  the  most  readily  digestible  form  (sick  diet). 
Horses  affected  with  certain  diseases,  for  instance,  are  given  oats 
which  have  been  ground  or  crushed,  or  are  fed  steamed  oats;  car- 
nivora  are  given  meat  finely  ground;  young  animals  are  fed  eggs, 
leguminous  meals  containing  dextrin  (children's  flour);  muci- 
laginous gruels,  roasted  meal,  etc.,  are  fed  in  intestinal  catarrh. 
See  the  text-books  on  dietetics. 


DISEASES  OF  METABOLISM  135 

(b)  The  medicinal  plastics  correspond  essentially  to  the  foods 
in  composition  and  consequently  consist  of  albumin,  fat,  carbo- 
hydrates and  salts.  The  most  important  are  meat  extract,  cod 
liver  oil,  sugar,  starch  flour,  milk  sugar,  peptone,  iron  salts,  cal- 
cium salts,  phosphorus,  phosphates,  sulphur,  potassium  salts, 
sodium  chloride  and  other  salts.  A  former  special  subdivision  of 
the  medicinal  plastics  was  the  peptic  plastics,  which  included 
pepsin  and  hydrochloric  acid.  These  are  referred  to  under  physi- 
ological stomachics  (page  29).     Arsenic  is  an  indirect  plastic. 

Uses. — The  plastics  are  employed  to  improve  nutrition  in  all 
acute  or  chronic  diseases  which  are  accompanied  by  emaciation  or 
tissue  reduction  and  especially  by  anaemia.  These  changes  are 
most  frequently  observed  in  chronic  constitutional  diseases,  par- 
ticularly anaemia,  pernicious  anaemia,  leukaemia,  rachitis,  osteo- 
malacia and  diabetes  mellitus.  They  also  occur  in  many  chronic 
debilitating  diseases,  e.g.,  tuberculosis,  worm  cachexia,  chronic 
gastric  and  intestinal  catarrh  and  carcinomatosis.  Considerable 
emaciation  takes  place  in  all  acute  febrile  diseases  in  which  metab- 
olism is  greatly  increased,  especially  in  the  acute  infectious  dis- 
eases (contagious  pneumonia,  canine  distemper,  aphthous  fever). 

Plastics  are  contraindicated  in  obesity,  which  on  the  contrary 
is  to  be  combated  with  antiplastics.  (See  the  section  on  anti- 
plastics,  p.  138.) 

Drugs. — 1 .  *Meat  extract.  A  valuable  blood  plastic  in  anaemia 
and  leukaemia  in  consequence  of  its  content  of  blood  salts  (potas- 
sium phosphate,  iron) ;  also  a  general  plastic  in  chronic  disturbance 
of  nutrition  in  carnivora.  It  has  no  particular  nutritive  value 
because  it  does  not  contain  albumin,  carbohydrates  or  fats.  Dose 
for  dogs,  2-10,  grs.  xxx  to  5ijss. 

2.  Oleum  morrhuae.  Cod  liver  oil.  On  account  of  its  content 
of  free  fatty  acids  and  easily  digested  fat,  an  important  plastic  in 
rachitis  and  anaemia  and  following  exhausting  diseases.  Doses 
for  horses  and  cattle,  100-500,  Siij  to  Oi;  sheep,  goats  and  swine, 
50-100,  5  iss  to  iij ;  dogs,  10-50,  5  ijss  to  5  iss;  fowl,  2-5,  tqjxxx  to  3i. 

3.  *Peptone.  A  substitute  for  albumin;  plastic  in  chronic  dis- 
turbances of  nutrition  in  carnivora.     Dose  for  dogs,  10-25,  3  ijss 


136        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

to  vj;  cats,  5-10,  3i  to  ijss.  Other  nutrient  preparations  are: 
somatose,  nutrose,  nutrol,  mutase,  eucasin,  roborin,  eulactol, 
sanose,  sanatogen,  aleuronat,  alkamose,  protogen,  tropon, 
globon,  etc. 

4.  Ferrum.  Iron.  A  specific  in  anaemia  and  leukaemia;  admin- 
istered in  small  frequently-repeated  doses  in  the  form  of  ferrum 
reductum,  ferri  sulphas,  tinctiira  ferri  chloridi  and  other  iron 
preparations  (see  p.  63).  The  blood  coloring  matter  itself  is  also 
used  in  the  form  of  *haemoglobin,  *haematol,  *haematogen,  *tre- 
fusia,  damholid,  etc. 

5.  Calcii  phosphas  praecipitatus.  Precipitated  calcium  phos- 
phate. A  specific  against  rachitis  and  osteomalacia;  usually  em- 
ployed in  the  form  of  the  so-called  bone  precipitate.  Dose  for 
cattle,  25-50,  5vj  to  xij;  horses,  10-25,  3 ijss  to  vj;  calves,  foals, 
sheep,  swine  and  goats,  5-15, 5i  to  jv;  dogs,  0.5  to  5,  5ss  to  j ;  fowl, 
1-2,  grs.  XV  to  XXX.  Calcii  carbonas  praecipitatus  and  liquor  calcis 
are  also  used. 

6.  Phosphorus.  A  specific  against  rachitis  and  osteomalacia; 
also  a  plastic  and  a  stimulant  to  the  bone  tissue.  Usually  com- 
bined with  cod  liver  oil.  Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  0.01-0.05,  gr. 
1/8  to  M;  sheep  and  swine,  0.002-0.005,  gr.  1/40  to  3/40;  dogs, 
0.0005-0.002,  gr.,  1/140  to  1/40;  cats  and  fowl,  0.0005-0.001,  gr. 
1/  140  to  1/70. 

7.  Sulphur  praecipitatum,  sulphur  lotum,  sulphur  sublimatum. 
A  general  plastic  (sulphur  content  of  the  tissue  albumins).  Dose 
for  horses  and  cattle,  2-5,  3ss  to  j ;  dogs,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij. 

8.  Potassii  bicarbonas.  Potassium  bicarbonate.  A  blood 
plastic  (blood-corpuscles).  Dose  for  cattle,  50-100,  3iss  to  iij; 
horses,  25-50,  Svj  to  xij;  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  2-5,  5ss  to  ij; 
dogs,  0.5-2,  grs.  vij  to  xxx. 

9.  Sodii  chloridum.  Sodium  chloride.  The  plastic  most  used 
in  animal  husbandry;  a  muscle,  blood  and  gland  plastic  (blood- 
plasma).     Dose,  same  as  potassium  bicarbonate. 

*  10.  *Sal  Carolinum  factitium  N.F.  Artificial  Carlsbad  salts. 
In  small  doses  (same  as  sodium  chloride),  increases  metabolism 
and  is  in  consequence  a  good  plastic. 


DISEASES  OF  METABOLISM  137 

2.  NUTRIENTS.    ROBORANTS 

Synon3rms:  Tonics,  confortatives,  confortants;  invigorating,  strength- 
ening medicines. 

Definition  and  Uses. — The  nutrients  differ  from  the  foods  in 
that  they  are  not  constituents  of  the  animal  body,  but  they  corre- 
spond to  the  foods  in  action  in  that  they  reheve  disturbances  of 
nutrition  and  metabolism  and  strengthen  the  body.  Some  of 
them  act  as  substitutes  for  the  proper  food  and  therefore  serve 
to  economize  tissue  waste.  They  form  a  group  of  drugs  which 
stand  between  the  plastics  and  excitants.  The  former  designa- 
tion of  tonics  is  incorrect  because  the  nutrients  do  not  increase 
the  tension  of  the  tissues,  as  the  muscles  for  instance,  but  stim- 
ulate metabolism  and  the  specific  functions  of  the  cells,  and 
act  upon  the  muscles  in  the  same  manner  as  upon  the  nerves  and 
glands. 

The  roborants  of  importance  in  veterinary  medicine  include 
alcohol,  which  on  the  one  hand  in  consequence  of  its  oxidation  to 
carbonic  acid  and  water  saves  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  of  the 
tissues,  and  on  the  other  hand  stimulates  the  functions  and  the 
metabolism  of  the  cells  of  the  body,  especially  those  of  the  brain, 
heart,  skeleton  muscles  and  glands.  Wine,  beer,  brandy,  cognac 
and  other  fluids  containing  alcohol  act  in  the  same  manner  as 
alcohol.  Other  very  important  roborants  are  coffee  and  other  sub- 
stances containing  caffeine  (tea,  cocoa).  Arsenic  is  also  very  fre- 
quently used  as  a  roborant. 

The  diseased  conditions  in  which  the  nutrients  are  used  are  the 
disturbances  of  nutrition  and  conditions  of  weakness  which  occur 
in  the  course  of  chronic  and  acute  diseases  and  after  difficult  par- 
turition and  severe  hemorrhage. 

Drugs. — 1.  Alcohol.  The  best  roborant  in  the  weak  condi- 
tions occurring  in  the  course  of  febrile  infectious  diseases  (con- 
tagious pneumonia);  in  convalescence  following  severe  acute  or 
chronic  diseases;  in  cachectic  conditions,  and  after  difficult  par- 
turition, hemorrhages,  etc.  At  the  same  time,  it  economizes  tissue 
waste  and  acts  as  an  excitant.    Given  in  repeated  small  doses: 


138        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

horses  and  cattle,  25-50,  3vj  to  xij;  dogs,  2-5, 5ss  to  i.  Dose  of 
spiritus  vini  gallici  double  these  quantities.  Wine  (vinum  album, 
vinum  rubrum)  and  beer  are  administered  in  quart  (horses  and 
cattle)  and  tablespoonful  (dogs)  doses. 

2.  *Cafifea.  Coffee.  A  superior  excitant  for  weakness  and 
depression  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  heart  and  the  muscles  of  the 
body. 

3.  Arseni  trioxidum.  Arsenic.  A  roborant  in  chronic  nutri- 
tive disturbances  and  in  conditions  of  inanition,  especially  in  gen- 
eral emaciation,  anaemia,  rachitis,  osteomalacia  and  chronic  eczema. 
Dose  for  horses  and  cattle,  0.1  to  0.5,  grs.  iss  to  vij;  sheep  and 
swine,  0.01-0.05,  gr.  1/8  to  %;  dogs,  0.001-0.005,  gr.  1/70  to  3/40 
(2  to  10  drops  of  liquor  potassii  arsenitis). 

3.  REDUCING  REMEDIES.     ANTIPLASTICS 

Synonyms:  Dysplastics;  reducing  treatment,  abstinence  treatment, 
hunger  cure. 

Actions. — The  antiplastics  are  used  exclusively  to  combat  and 
overcome  obesity  or  corpulence,  i.e.,  an  abnormal  collection  of  fat 
in  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  liver,  heart,  body  cavities, 
etc.,  resulting  from  too  intensive  feeding  with  insufficient  exercise  or 
work.  The  antiplastics  are  usually  divided  into  two  groups:  the 
dietetic  and  medicinal. 

Dietetic  Reducing  Methods. — These  consist  of  methodical, 
rational  feeding  and  regulation  of  the  diet,  i.e.,  the  supplying  of 
suitable  foods  and  the  partial  or  complete  withdrawal  of  certain 
nutritive  substances  and  foods.  The  simplest  reducing  method, 
which  usually  suffices  for  animals,  is  the  himger  or  abstinence  cure. 
This  method  is  appHed  by  entirely  withholding  food  from  the 
over-fat  animal  for  a  time  or  by  reducing  the  amount  of  food  given. 
Work  and  exercise  at  the  same  time  will  be  of  assistance  in  obtain- 
ing the  desired  results.  This  method,  however,  is  not  applicable 
to  all  cases.  In  advanced  obesity,  in  which  the  body  is  deficient  in 
albumin,  the  abstinence  cure  will  increase  the  weakness.  In  other 
cases,  the  method   cannot  always  be  carried   out    (ill-behaving 


DISEASES  OF  METABOLISM  139 

dogs).  For  these  reasons,  the  modem  dietetic  reducing  methods 
used  on  man  possess  a  certain  importance  in  veterinary  medicine, 
especially  in  canine  practice.  The  most  important  of  these 
methods  are  the  following: 

(a)  The  Banting  ^  cure.  This  consists  of  the  use  of  a  purely 
albuminous  diet,  the  only  food  permitted  being  fat-free  meat. 
Carbohydrates  and  fat  are  omitted  entirely.  As  a  consequence, 
in  order  to  meet  the  carbon  requirements  of  the  body,  the  fat 
stored  up  in  the  tissues  is  drawn  on  and  oxidized.  Great  care 
must  be  exercised  in  using  this  method.  If  continued  too  long, 
until  after  the  tissue  fat  is  used  up,  the  tissue  albumin  will  be 
attacked  and  will  be  reduced  in  spite  of  the  increased  ingestion  of 
albumin. 

(b)  The  Ebstein^  reducing  method.  In  this  method  only  the 
carbohydrates  are  excluded  from  the  food,  the  use  of  fat  as  well  as 
albumin  being  permitted.  The  fat  is  given  to  bring  about  an 
early  appeasement  of  the  appetite  and  thus  decrease  the  total 
amount  of  food  ingested. 

(c)  The  OerteP  reducing  method.  This  method  is  based 
essentially  upon  the  withholding  of  water;  albumin,  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates are  all  permitted.  In  addition,  an  effort  is  made  to 
increase  the  amount  of  work  performed.  This  method  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  treatment  of  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart. 
In  consequence  of  the  withdrawal  of  water,  the  blood  is  decreased 
in  volume  and  the  resistance  to  the  heart  is  thereby  reduced.  The 
simultaneous  artificial  increase  of  cardiac  activity  exerts  a  fat- 
reducing  and  strengthening  effect  upon  the  heart  muscle. 

Medical  Reducing  Remedies. — These  are  secondary  in  impor- 
tance to  the  dietetic  methods.  They  involve  the  use  of  cathartics, 
especially  Glauber's  salt.    The  frequently  repeated  rapid  emptying 

1 W.  Banting,  an  Englishman  suffering  from  obesity,  was  treated  by  his 
physician,  Dr.  Harvey,  by  the  method  formerly  known  as  the  "meat 
method,"  and  published  his  experiences  in  1863  in  a  book  entitled  "  Letter 
on  Corpulence  Addressed  to  the  Public." 

2  Ebstein,  late  professor  of  medicine  in  Gottingen. 

•  Oertel,  late  professor  of  medicine  in  Munich. 


140         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

of  the  intestinal  contents  removes  from  the  body  a  quantity  of 
nutritive  materials  and  the  excess  of  body  fat  must  finally  serve  as  a 
substitute.  At  the  same  time,  through  the  specific  action  of  the 
alkalies,  the  metabolism  of  the  body  is  accelerated  and  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  fat  is  thereby  increased.  Most  frequently,  Glauber's 
salt  is  used  in  the  form  of  Carlsbad  salts.  The  treatment  of 
obesity  with  potassium  iodide  (chronic  iodism)  and  with  prepara- 
tions of  the  thyroid  gland  (iodothyrin)  is  dangerous. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE 

Pathology. — In  the  treatment  of  the  different  diseases  of  the 
eye  numerous  therapeutic  methods  come  into  consideration.  Dis- 
eases of  the  Hds,  conjunctiva  and  cornea  are  treated  with  anti- 
septics (boric  acid,  sahcylic  acid,  chlorine  water,  quinine),  as- 
tringents (zinc  sulphate,  silver  nitrate),  caustics  (copper  sulphate, 
oxide  of  mercury,  cauterization)  and  narcotics  (cocaine,  eucaine, 
alypin,  ansesthesin,  orthoform);  also  by  operation  (entropion 
operation),  massage  (corneal  opacity),  hydrotherapy,  etc.  In 
paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve,  excitants  (strychnine)  and  electro- 
therapy are  employed.  Finally,  there  is  a  group  of  medicines 
which  are  usually  designated  as  eye  remedies  in  the  restricted 
sense.  These  are  the  pupil-dilating  (mydriatics)  and  the  pupil- 
contracting  (myotics)  agents. 

1.  PUPIL-DILATING  REMEDIES.    MYDRIATICS 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  artificial  dilation  of  the  pupil  by 
atropine,  scopolamine  (hyoscine)  and  homatropine  is  the  result  of 
paralysis  of  the  oculomotor  nerve  the  motor  nerve  of  the  sphincter 
of  the  pupil.  The  mydriasis  is  usually  produced  by  the  direct  or 
local  action  of  the  drug  by  introducing  the  latter  into  the  con- 
junctival sac;  dilation  of  the  pupil  by  the  internal  administration 
of  the  mydriatic  is  of  no  practical  value. 

The  purposes  for  which  mydriatics  are  used  are  very  variable. 
Therapeutically,  they  are  employed  in  iritis  to  prevent  or  loosen 
adhesions  of  the  iris  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens.  For  this  reason, 
they  are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  treatment  of  periodic 
ophthalmia  in  the  horse.  They  are  also  used  to  prepare  the  eye  for 
some  operations,  especially  the  cataract  operation  and  iridectomy. 
They  are  not  less  important  for  diagnostic  purposes,  when  it  is 
desired  to  examine  the  interior  of  the  eye,  the  artificial  dilation  of 
the  pupil  facilitating  the  examination  of  the  interior  with  the 
ophthalmoscope.     In  this  way  turbidity  of  the  vitreous  humor 

141 


142        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

and  of  the  lens,  detachment  of  the  retina  and  other  internal  eye 
diseases  are  more  readily  recognized. 

Drugs. — 1.  Atropinae  sulphas.  The  most  frequently  used 
mydriatic  in  periodic  ophthalmia,  iritis  and  in  operations  on  the 
eye;  1  to  2  per  cent,  solution.  For  diagnostic  purposes  a  weaker 
solution  is  used  (J^  to  1  per  cent.). 

2.  Hyoscinae  hydrobromidum.  A  more  powerful  mydriatic; 
therefore  used  when  atropine  does  not  suffice;  solution,  0.2  to  0.5 
per  cent. 

3.  HomatropinsB  hydrobromidum.  A  mydriatic  used  for  diag- 
nostic purposes.  The  pupillary  dilation  disappears  more  rapidly 
than  when  produced  by  atropine  or  hyoscine,  but  occurs  much 
more  slowly.     Very  expensive. 

Newer  mydriatics  are  *mydrol,  *mydrin,  *eumydrin  and 
♦euphthalmine  (very  expensive). 

2.  PUPIL-CONTRACTING  REMEDIES.    MYOTICS 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  myotics,  of  which  arecohne  and  pilo- 
carpine may  be  mentioned  as  the  most  important,  cause  a  narrow- 
ing of  the  pupil  by  contraction  of  the  sphincter  muscle  of  the  pupil, 
the  latter  action  resulting  in  consequence  of  stimulation  of  the 
oculomotor  nerve.  Myosis  is  of  value  therapeutically  because  by 
the  contraction  of  the  iris  synechia  of  the  latter  with  the  capsule 
of  the  lens  will  be  loosened.  Adhesions  of  the  iris  occurring  in 
periodic  ophthalmia,  for  instance,  are  treated  alternately  with 
atropine  (mydriasis)  and  eserine  (myosis).  Eserine  is  also  em- 
ployed to  reduce  the  internal  pressure  of  the  eye  in  glaucoma. 

Drugs. — 1.  Physostigminae  sulphas.  Eserine.  A  myotic  in 
synechia  of  the  iris,  periodic  ophthalmia,  adhesion  of  the  iris  and 
prolapse  of  the  iris;  H  to  1  per  cent,  solution. 

2.  *ArecolinaB  hydrobromidum.  Used  in  the  same  manner  as 
physostigmine. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  SKIN  AND  MUCOUS 

MEMBRANES 

Physiology. — The  skin  and  mucous  membranes  are  in  the  first 
place  protective  organs,  guarding  the  body  against  external  influ- 
ences. The  skin  especially  being  exposed  to  numerous  and  varied 
insults  must  possess  a  resistant  structure  and  a  particularly  strong 
regenerative  capacity.  This  is  actually  the  case,  as  is  demon- 
strated most  markedly  in  the  healing  of  wounds.  (See  the  chapter 
of  general  surgery  on  primary  and  secondary  healing  of  wounds.) 
No  loss  of  tissue  is  more  readily  replaced  by  natural  healing 
than  epithelium  or  epidermis.  In  many  cases,  natural  healing 
alone  removes  the  defect. 

In  addition  to  their  protective  action,  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes  have  other  important  physiological  functions.  These 
latter  include  secretion  (water,  mucus,  urea,  salts,  bacteria, 
toxins,  gases),  respiration  (cutaneous  respiration),  regulation  of 
heat  (evaporation,  radiation)  and  reflex  action.  The  reflex  ac- 
tivity of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance in  therapeutics  because  of  the  numerous  specialized  nerve- 
end  apparatuses  they  contain  and  also  because  of  the  manifold 
relations  of  the  skin  to  the  internal  organs  (central  nervous  sys- 
tem, circulatory  apparatus,  respiration,  kidneys,  gastro-intestinal 
canal,  metabolism).  (See  the  chapter  on  the  so-called  cutaneous 
irritant  or  derivative  method.) 

Therapeutic  Methods. — The  many  different  diseases  to  which 
these  structures  are  liable,  together  with  the  extensive  relations  of 
the  skin  to  the  internal  organs,  combine  to  make  the  therapeutics 
of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes  a  very  comprehensive  subject. 
Wounds,  inflammation,  eczemas,  catarrhs,  infections,  parasites, 
tumors  and  many  other  disease  conditions  call  for  numerous  special 
methods  of  treatment.  Of  these,  the  antiseptic  (including  disin- 
fection) treatment  of  wounds,  the  antiparasitic  method  of  treat- 
ment and  hydrotherapy,  as  well  as  the  diaphoretic  method  of 

143 


144         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

treating  internal  diseases,  must  be  discussed  in  special  chapters. 
The  operative  treatment  of  tumors  and  wounds  must  also  be 
omitted  from  this  section.  For  the  prophylactic  method  (harden- 
ing of  the  skin  to  cold,  care  of  the  skin,  clipping),  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  text-books  on  hygiene  and  dietetics.  There  re- 
main to  be  considered  of  the  general  therapeutic  methods  the 
cutaneous  irritant  method,  the  caustics,  firing  and  the  astringent 
method.  In  addition,  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  the  skin 
will  be  reviewed  in  a  general  way. 

1.  GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  DISEASES  OF 
THE   SKIN 

Eczema. — The  very  diverse  and  essential  differences  in  the 
individual  diseases  of  the  skin  render  a  discussion  of  the  subject  in 
a  general  way  very  difficult.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  those 
skin  diseases  belonging  to  the  domain  of  surgery  (dermatitis, 
tumors,  ulcers,  phlegmona,  erysipelas,  foreign  bodies,  gangrene, 
acne  and  furunculosis)  and  the  acute  infectious  exanthemas  (pox, 
aphthous  fever,  swine  erysipelas),  there  still  remains  of  the  skin 
diseases  in  a  restricted  sense  a  group  of  dermatoses  known  under 
the  name  of  eczema  which  are  of  great  practical  importance.  In 
special  pathology,  a  distinction  is  made  between  parasitic  and 
non-parasitic  eczema.  For  the  treatment  of  parasitic  eczema 
(mange,  herpes,  lice,  fleas)  the  antiparasitic  method  is  employed. 
This  is  described  in  detail  in  another  place  (p.  160).  The  non- 
parasitic eczema  appears,  as  is  well  known,  in  many  different 
forms.  There  are  recognized  erythematous,  papular,  vesicular, 
pustular,  crustaceous,  squamous,  seborrhoeic,  sycosiform,  acute 
and  chronic  eczema.  The  treatment  of  the  several  forms  is  very 
different.  Next  to  the  causal  method,  which  consists  in  removing 
and  combating  the  cause  (removal  of  external  irritants,  cleaning, 
disinfection),  the  symptomatic  treatment  of  the  local  alterations  is 
the  most  important.  The  derivative  and  internal  treatment  of 
eczema  with  cathartics  and  arsenic,  formerly  employed,  has  been 
abandoned  and  replaced  by  the  local  treatment.     The  local  treat- 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  145 

ment  of  eczema  differs  with  the  form,  degree  and  age  of  the  dis- 
ease. Chronic  eczema  especially  requires  treatment  essentially- 
different  from  the  acute.  In  the  one  case  a  stimulant,  sometimes 
even  caustic,  treatment  is  necessary  (tar  in  chronic  eczema),  while 
in  the  other  protective  remedies  are  indicated  (protective  and  indif- 
ferent medicines  in  acute  eczema).  Again,  other  cases  require  the 
application  of  desiccants  (silver  nitrate,  zinc  oxide,  tannin),  emol- 
lients (fats,  soaps,  glycerin),  and  anodynes  (narcotics).  In  addi- 
tion, the  mechanical  remedies  (rubbing,  massage)  and  hydro- 
therapy (baths,  poultices)  are  also  employed. 

Drugs. — 1.  Pix  liquida.  Tar.  The  best  remedy  in  chronic 
eczema;  contraindicated  in  acute  eczema;  used  in  the  form  of  tar 
spirits,^  tar  salve  ^  and  tar  liniment.^  *Creolin  acts  the  same  as 
tar.  Modem  substitutes  for  tar  are:  *ichthyol,  *thiol,  *tumenol, 
*thigenol,  *lithyol,  p3rrogallol,  *anthrasol,  *anthrarobin,  *empyro- 
form,  *lenigallol  and  petrosulphol. 

2.  Zinci  oxidimi.  Zinc  oxide.  A  good  protective  and  desiccant 
in  acute  eczema;  used  in  powder,  ointment  [unguentum  zinci 
oxidi],  paste  and  gelatin.  Plumbi  oxidum,  acidum  tannicum, 
*tannoform,  bismuthi  subgallas,  amylum,  sevum  praeparatiun 
(prepared  suet),  kaolinum  and  calcii  carbonas  praecipitatus  have 
the  same  action. 

3.  Argenti  nitras.  Silver  nitrate.  The  best  desiccant,  pro- 
tective and  disinfectant  in  acute  moist  eczemas;  used  in  ointment 
or  in  solution  in  water  or  alcohol  (5  to  10  per  cent.). 

4.  Soaps.  Sapo  mollis  (alkaline)  is  used  as  a  stimulant  in 
chronic  eczema  alone  or  in  combination  with  tar;  contraindicated 
in  acute  eczema.  *Potassa  sulphurata  (liver  of  sulphur)  has  the 
same  action,  but  is  more  powerful.  The  neutral  soaps  have  a 
cleansing  and  softening  action. 

5.  Glycerinum.  Glycerin.  An  emollient  in  squamous  and 
crustaceous  eczemas;  contraindicated  in  acute  eczemas  (stimulant 
action).     Iodine  and  glycerin  combined  have  a  desiccant  action. 

[^  Pix  liquida  3i,  alcohol  gx. 
2  Pix  liquida  5i,  adeps  5x. 
»  Pix  liquida,  sapo  mollis,  aa  giv;  alcohol  gij.l 
10 


146         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

6.  Fats,  oils,  paraflan  ointment,  petrolatum,  lanolin  (adeps 
lanae  hydrosus).  Protective,  indifferent  substances,  replacing  the 
cutaneous  fat,  in  acute  eczemas;  exert  a  disintegrating  action  in 
chronic  skin  exudates.  Pastes  (zinc,  starch,  petrolatum),  gly- 
cerin gelatin  (zinc  gelatin),  plasters  (lead  plaster,  salicylic  soap 
plaster)  and  varnishes  are  similar  in  action, 

7.  Arseni  trioxidimi.  Arsenic.  Used  internally  as  an  alter- 
ative in  the  form  of  liquor  potassii  arsenitis  (5  to  10  drops  for  dogs; 
5-10,  5i  to  ijss,  for  horses).  More  modem  arsenical  preparations 
are  salvarsan  and  atoxyl. 

2.  CUTANEOUS  IRRITANTS.    ACRICS 

Synonyms:  Derivants,  epispastics,  rubefacients,  vesicants,  pustulants, 
Buppuratives,  irritants,  erethistics,  dermerethistics;  acrid,  stimulating,  irri- 
tating, derivative  medicines;  digestive  medicines  in  a  surgical  sense;  blisters. 

Actions. — ^The  term  aeries  is  used  to  designate  those  drugs 
which  act  as  irritants  to  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes  and  to  all 
organs  in  general  which  contain  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  produc- 
ing hypersesthesia  and  pain  together  with  hypersemia  and  inflam- 
mation. In  the  restricted  sense  the  term  includes  only  the  cuta- 
neous irritants.  The  effects  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  aeries 
correspond  exactly  to  the  changes  produced  in  the  skin  by  other 
causes  of  inflammation  (traumatic,  thermic  and  infectious  irri- 
tants). Numerous  investigations  concerning  the  production  of 
inflammation  by  aeries  have  been  made  since  those  of  Cohnheim, 
among  which  the  work  of  Leber  is  especially  worthy  of  considera- 
tion. In  the  purely  aseptic  inflammation,  produced  by  cantharides 
or  croton  oil  and  not  by  bacteria,  the  following  changes  are  to  be 
observed:  First,  the  vessels  are  dilated  reflexly,  producing  hyper- 
semia, redness,  swelling  and  increased  temperature  in  the  affected 
part  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane.  Then  follows  an  exudation 
of  plasma  (serum)  from  the  blood.  Soon  after  this  there  is  an 
emigration  of  leucocytes  through  the  cement  substance  of  the  endo- 
thelium. The  principal  cause  of  this  emigration  is  not  the  amoe- 
boid movement  of  the  leucocytes,  the  increased  blood-pressure  nor 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  147 

the  greater  penetrability  of  the  vessel  walls,  but  the  chemotactic 
action  of  the  chemical  irritants,  which  attracts  the  leucocytes,  sets 
up  the  amoeboid  movement  and  causes  them  to  wander  out  to  the 
chemotactic  centre  (cantharides,  croton  oil).  The  emigrated  leu- 
cocytes act  as  phagocytes  (Metschnikoff)  and  also  produce  a  diges- 
tive enzyme  which  transforms  the  disease  products  into  albumoses 
(propeptones)  and  by  this  action  liquefies  them  (histolysis).  The 
term  digestives,  formeriy  applied  in  surgery  to  those  drugs  which 
stimulated  suppuration,  was  therefore  entirely  warranted.  The 
bacteria-free  pus  produced  by  the  digestives  possesses  a  strong  bac- 
tericidal action.  There  is  also  probably  an  increased  local  forma- 
tion of  antitoxins  in  consequence  of  stimulation  of  the  tissue  cells 
by  the  aeries.  (See  the  chapter  on  hydrotherapy.)  According  to 
the  force  of  the  chemical  irritation,  different  degrees  of  cutaneous 
inflammation  are  produced:  hypersemia,  vesicle  and  pus  formation. 
Another,  although  smaller,  division  of  cutaneous  irritants  acts  like 
the  caustics  by  coagulation  or  solution  of  the  albumin  of  the  tissues. 
(See  the  following  chapter  on  caustics.) 

The  skin  and  mucous  membranes  differ  very  greatly  in  their 
sensitiveness  to  the  aeries.  The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  found  in 
the  difference  in  the  covering  epithelium.  The  horny,  dry,  dead 
cells  of  the  epiderm  protect  the  skin  against  the  action  of  dry, 
solid  irritants,  so  that  it  is  indifferent,  for  example,  to  sublimate, 
silver  nitrate,  arsenic  and  even  to  phosphorus  in  the  dry  condi- 
tion, but  when  these  substances  are  applied  to  the  tender,  moist 
cells  of  the  mucous  membrane,  with  its  covering  of  fluid,  they  are 
immediately  dissolved  and  penetrate  the  membrane.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  skin  is  more  susceptible  than  the  mucous  mem- 
branes to  some  of  the  fluid  irritants,  especially  those  which  are 
volatile.  Turpentine  oil,  for  instance,  is  less  irritant  to  the  tracheal 
and  intestinal  mucous  membranes  than  to  the  external  skin  because 
the  mucous  membranes  are  covered  with  a  protective  layer  of 
mucus  which  the  ethereal  oil,  not  being  miscible  with  water, 
cannot  penetrate,  while  it  is  quickly  imbibed  by  the  dry  cells 
of  the  epiderm  and  can  also  rapidly  pass  through  the  same  in  the 
gaseous  form. 


148        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Classification. — The  cutaneous  irritants  are  usually  divided 
into  the  following  four  subdivisions: 

1.  Rubefacients:  Turpentine  oil,  camphor,  tincture  of  arnica, 
tincture  of  capsicum,  oil  of  juniper,  oil  of  rosemary,  ammonia 
water,  tincture  of  iodine,  Priessnitz  dressing,  massage. 

2.  Vesicants :  Cantharides,  oil  of  mustard. 

3.  Pustulants:  Tartar  emetic,,  croton  oil,  euphorbium. 

4.  Suppurants :  Biniodide  of  mercury,  bichromate  of  potassium. 

Uses. — The  cutaneous  irritants  are  of  essentially  greater  prac- 
tical consideration  in  veterinary  medicine  than  in  human  thera- 
peutics. They  are  employed  with  advantage  in  internal  medicine 
as  well  as  in  surgery  for  the  most  varied  purposes.  The  most 
important  diseases  in  which  they  are  used  are  the  following: 

1.  Subacute  and  chronic  inflammations,  including  chronic 
eczema,  also  contusions  of  the  skin,  the  subcutis  and  the  under- 
Ijdng  tendons,  tendon  sheaths,  joints,  muscles  and  bones.  Strong 
cutaneous  irritation,  such  as  may  be  produced  by  briskly  rub- 
bing in  tincture  of  iodine,  cantharides  ointment  or  biniodide  of 
mercury  ointment,  exerts  a  healing  effect  in  all  these  surgical  condi- 
tions. An  artificial  inflammation  is  generated  in  the  skin  which 
extends  to  the  underlying  parts,  converting  the  chronic  inflamma- 
tion into  the  acute  form,  which  runs  a  more  rapid  course;  acceler- 
ating, like  firing,  the  absorption  of  the  exudate  and,  in  painful 
inflanmaation  of  the  articulations,  hastening  the  ankylosis  and 
thereby  removing  the  pain  and  lameness.  The  method  of  opera- 
tion of  epispastics  has  been  more  exactly  studied  in  connection  with 
tincture  of  iodine.  When  the  latter  substance  is  painted  upon  the 
skin  an  erysipelatous-like  inflammation  with  oedema  formation  is 
produced,  which  is  accompanied  by  outwandering  of  the  white 
blood-cells  (local  hyperleucocytosis),  formation  of  enzymes,  lique- 
faction of  the  tissue  albumins  and  softening  of  the  solid  disease 
products  (histolysis).  Resorption  of  the  inflammatory  exudate 
follows. 

2.  Acute  inflammations  of  the  lungs,  pleura,  and  peritoneum. 
The  cutaneous  irritants  first  of  all  draw  blood  from  the  internal 
organs   (derivative  action).     In  exudative   pleurisy  (contagious 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  149 

pneumonia),  for  instance,  briskly  rubbing  the  corresponding  chest 
wall  with  oil  of  mustard  will  produce  an  intense  hyperaemia  and 
swelling  of  the  skin,  which  results  in  a  corresponding  withdrawal  of 
blood  from  the  pleura.  In  the  same  manner,  the  skin  may  derive 
blood  from  other  internal  organs,  as  the  intestines,  brain,  kidneys. 
In  addition,  the  formation  of  antitoxins  will  be  increased  in  conse- 
quence of  the  stimulation  of  the  nutrition  of  the  body  cells. 

3.  Fever.  The  cutaneous  irritants  operate  to  reduce  fever  by 
drawing  a  larger  amount  of  blood  to  the  skin  and  consequently 
increasing  the  dissipation  of  heat,  like  digitalis.  They  also  in- 
crease the  formation  of  antitoxins  in  the  body,  thereby  promoting 
the  natural  healing  reaction  in  febrile  diseases.  By  the  appli- 
cation of  mustard  spirit  in  contagious  pneumonia,  for  example, 
not  only  is  a  derivative  action  obtained  but  the  temperature  is  also 
considerably  reduced.     At  the  same  time,  the  heart-beat  is  slowed. 

4.  Diseases  due  to  chilling,  especially  rheumatic  colic.  The 
cutaneous  irritants  (turpentine  oil,  spirit  of  camphor)  operate  in 
these  cases  like  the  diaphoretics,  stimulating  the  evaporation  from 
the  skin  and  regulating  the  disturbed  distribution  of  the  blood 
(hyperaemia  of  the  central  organs,  anaemia  of  the  skin). 

5.  Relaxation  and  paralysis  of  the  gastric  and  intestinal  mus- 
culature. The  peristaltic  movements  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines may  be  stimulated  reflexly  by  irritation  of  the  sensory 
nerves  of  the  skin.  The  epispastics  are  therefore  very  valuable 
peristaltics  in  atony  and  paresis  of  the  gastro-intestinal  wall,  par- 
ticularly in  the  course  of  constipation  colic,  tympanites  and  chronic 
gastro-intestinal  catarrh. 

6.  Spinal  paralyses  (lumbar  weakness,  lumbar  paralysis). 
The  stronger  cutaneous  irritants  act  here  partly  as  stimulants  to 
the  paralyzed  nervous  system  and  partly  as  derivatives.  For  the 
same  reasons,  they  may  also  be  employed  in  cerebral  and  periph- 
eral paralyses.  In  other  cases,  according  to  the  principles  of 
counter-irritation,  the  epispastics  will  depress  a  pathologically 
increased  nervous  activity  (hyperaesthesia). 

7.  Diseases  of  the  kidneys.  Because  of  the  ability  of  the  skin 
to  assume  in  a  compensatory  way  the  functions  of  the  kidneys, 


150        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

cutaneous  irritants  afford  relief  to  the  kidneys  in    anuria  and 
uraemia  occurring  in  the  course  of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys. 

8.  In  surgery,  the  so-called  digestives,  particularly  turpentine 
oil,  aloes  and  Peru  balsam,  are  used  in  the  form  of  solutions, 
ointments,  plasters  and  tampons  to  promote  the  suppuration  and 
granulation  of  wounds,  ulcers  and  abscesses  (bactericidal  and  sol- 
vent action  of  sterile  pus), 

Zschokke,  in  an  excellent  article  (TJeber  die  Wirkungsweise  der  Deri- 
vantien,  Monatshefte  fiir  prakt.  Tierheilkunde,  vol.  ix,  1898),  strongly 
recommends  the  retention  of  the  derivants,  i.e.,  the  cutaneous  irritants,  lini- 
ments, blisters  and  firing,  in  veterinary  medicine.  According  to  him,  they  are 
indispensable  in  numerous  diseases.  He  refers  to  the  widespread  view  that 
the  cutaneous  irritants  only  act  by  forcing  the  patient  to  keep  the  diseased 
part  as  quiet  as  possible,  and  points  out  that  the  local  effects  are  stimulation 
of  phagocytosis  (resorption,  disinfection)  and  an  increased  formation  of  anti- 
toxins locally  (disinfection)  aa  a  result  of  stimulation  of  the  nutrition  of  the 
tissue  cells.  The  general  action  of  the  derivants  in  febrile  diseases  is  also  due 
to  the  formation  of  antitoxins,  which  combat  fever  and  even  abort  infectious 
diseases.  In  phlegmona  especially,  an  effective  disinfection,  with  phagocy- 
tosis and  a  rapid  disappearance  of  the  bacteria,  is  obtained  from  "blisters," 
as  has  been  demonstrated  experimentally  in  horses  by  Bossi  (II  nuovo  Erco- 
lani,  1891). 

An  historical  study  of  the  action  of  ''blisters"  was  published  by  Gramm- 
lich  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Veterinarkunde  (1898).  See  also  Kiinnemann's 
Festrede  tiber  die  Wirkung  der  hautreizenden  Mittel  (1907), 

Drugs. — 1.  Oleum  terebinthinae.  Turpentine  oil  is  frequently 
used  as  a  rubefacient  in  chronic  muscular  rheumatism,  colic, 
chronic  articular  and  tendon  lamenesses,  cedematous  swellings 
of  the  skin,  contusions  of  the  joints,  weak  and  paralytic  condi- 
tions, etc.;  usually  diluted,  1  :  10-20,  with  alcohol,  spirit  of  cam- 
phor or  oil;  also  injected  subcutaneously  to  produce  derivative 
abscesses  (so-called  fixation  abscesses)  in  infectious  diseases. 

2.  Spiritus  camphorse.  Spirit  of  camphor.  Also  a  frequently 
used  epispastic,  alone  or  combined  with  turpentine  oil.  A  stronger 
action  is  exerted  by  the  application  of  camphora  in  substance. 

3.  Tinctura  amicse.  Much  used  by  the  laity  as  a  stimulant 
and  resolvent  in  rheumatism  and  contusions.    Tinctura  capsici  has 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  151 

the  same  action  and  is  sometimes,  in  addition  to  the  previously 
mentioned  drugs,  a  constituent  of  the  so-called  restitution  fluid. 

4.  Tinctura  aloes.  An  old  veterinary  digestive  for  granulating 
wounds  and  ulcers  of  the  hoof. 

5.  Aqua  ammoniae.  Ammonia  water.  Usually  used  in  the 
form  of  a  liniment,  1  part  to  4  of  oil.  A  brisk  epispastic  in  chronic 
arthritis,  inflammation  of  the  tendons  and  muscular  rheumatism. 

6.  Tinctura  iodi.  Tincture  of  iodine.  A  powerful  resolvent, 
especially  in  periostitis,  arthritis,  periarthritis,  tendinitis  and 
tendovaginitis.  Like  ammonia  water,  it  occupies  a  position 
between  the  rubefacients  and  the  vesicants. 

7.  Cantharis.  Cantharides.  The  ointment*  is  frequently 
used  as  a  vesicant  for  horses  and  cattle  in  chronic  exostoses  (spavin, 
ring  bone,  splint),  inflammations  of  joints,  tendons  and  tendon 
sheaths,  chronic  rheumatic  lameness,  contusion  swelHngs,  etc. 
Cantharides  plaster^  and  cantharides  oil^  have  the  same  action, 
but  tinctura  cantharidis  and  collodium  cantharadatum  are  some- 
what weaker  and  are  employed  in  canine  practice. 

8.  Oleum  sinapis  volatile.  Oil  of  mustard.  A  valuable 
derivant  in  pleurisy,  pneumonia,  peritonitis  and  meningitis;  used 
on  horses  in  4  to  6  per  cent,  alcoholic  solution;  cattle,  10  to  20  per 
cent. ;  dogs,  2  per  cent.     Mustard  plasters  are  also  frequently  used. 

9.  Hydrargyri  iodidiun  rubrum.  Biniodide  of  mercury.  A 
most  powerful  epispastic;  specific  for  long-standing  inflammations 
of  the  joints,  bones  and  tendons,  especially  spavins,  ring  bones, 
splints,  galls  and  induration  of  tendons;  used  on  horses  in  concen- 
trations of  1  : 4  to  5  of  lard  or  cantharides  ointment.  Potassii  di- 
chromas  has  the  same  action  (1  :  10  to  20  for  horses). 

10.  Antimonii  et  potassii  tartras.  Tartar  emetic.  A  derivant 
for  cattle  and  swine  in  ointment  (1  :  4). 

[*  Powdered  cantharides  2  parts,  digested  for  ten  hours  with  2  parts  each 
of  peanut  oil  and  lard;  yellow  wax  1  part,  turpentine  2  parts,  mixed;  euphor- 
bium  1  part.] 

[5  Colophony  and  turpentine,  6  parts  of  each,  melted  together;  add,  after 
partial  cooling,  powdered  cantharides  3  parts,  powdered  euphorbium  1  part. 

*  Cantharides  3  parts,  digested  ten  hours  with  10  parts  of  peanut  oil; 
express  and  filter.] 


152         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

11.  *Euphorbitim.  A  very  irritant  epispastic;  used  in  old, 
chronic  surgical  affections  of  the  joints,  tendons  and  bones;  used  on 
cold-blooded  horses  and  cattle  either  alone  1  :  10-15  of  lard,  or  as 
an  addition  to  cantharides  ointment  (1  :  10-20). 

12.  Oleum  tiglii.  Croton  oil.  Also  a  very  powerful  irritant; 
used  in  obstinate  chronic  rheumatism,  arthritis,  tendinitis,  paresis, 
etc.;  also  as  a  derivant  in  inflammations  of  internal  organs;  must  be 
used  cautiously.  The  concentration  for  horses  is  1  :  30;  cattle, 
1  :  5-10;  swine,  1  :2-5;  dogs,  1  :  50-100.  It  is  diluted  with  olive 
oil,  turpentine  oil  or  cantharides  ointment. 

3.  CAUSTICS 
S]monyms:    Corrosives,  cauteries,  escharotics,  cathaeretics. 

Actions. — ^While  the  cutaneous  irritants  produce  only  the  alter- 
ations of  inflammation,  without  injuring  the  vitality  of  the  tissues, 
the  caustics  cause  the  death  of  those  living  tissues  with  which  they 
come  in  contact.  The  caustic  action  of  the  individual  drugs  is 
brought  about  in  very  different  ways  and  on  this  basis  the  following 
groups  of  caustics  are  classified  (concerning  firing,  the  actual 
cautery,  see  p.  156). 

1.  Caustic  acids:  Nitric,  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  acetic,  chlor- 
acetic,  lactic  and  salicylic  acids  and  formaldehyde.  Of  these,  the 
mineral  acids  and  lactic  acid  operate  by  coagulating  the  albumin; 
they  unite  with  the  albumin,  forming  insoluble  acid  albuminates, 
thereby  bringing  about  the  precipitation  and  death  of  the  dis- 
solved living  albumins.  Nitric  acid,  especially,  forms  with  the 
organic  albumin  a  yellow  acid  albuminate  (xanthoproteic  acid, 
nitrogen  compound).  The  organic  acids,  particularly  acetic  acid, 
also  unite  with  the  tissue  albumin  to  form  acid  albuminates,  but 
these  compounds  are  soluble  and  are  only  precipitated  when  the 
solution  is  neutralized.  The  caustic  action  of  sulphuric  acid  is 
due  to  its  strong  affinity  for  water,  which  it  withdraws  from  the 
tissues,  the  latter  being  carbonized.  Salicylic  acid  and  formalde- 
hyde are  peculiar  in  their  action,  producing  a  keratolytic  effect,  or 
comification. 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  153 

2.  Caustic  alkalies:  Caustic  potash,  caustic  soda,  caustic  lime, 
Vienna  paste.  These  dissolve  the  organic  albumin  by  taking  up 
water  and  forming  soluble  alkaline  albuminates.  Their  eschar 
or  slough  is  mostly  moist,  deep  and  diffuse,  extending  into  the 
surrounding  tissue,  a  contrast  to  the  dry,  circumscribed,  superficial 
eschar  of  the  mineral  acids. 

3.  Metallic  caustics:  Zinc  chloride,  corrosive  sublimate,  potas- 
sium chromate,  chromic  acid,  iron  chloride,  iron  sulphate,  copper 
sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  silver  nitrate,  antimony  trichloride, 
arsenic,  lead  acetate  and  nitrate,  biniodide  of  mercury,  oxide  of 
mercury,  copper  acetate,  potassium  permanganate.  These  metal- 
lic compounds  act  by  forming  an  insoluble  metallic  albuminate,  at 
the  same  time  setting  free  the  acid  components  (sulphuric  acid, 
nitric  acid,  chlorine,  iodine).  Some  of  them,  in  addition,  act  also 
by  oxidation;  these  include  the  oxygen-containing  caustics,  chromic 
acid  and  permanganate  of  potash,  which  give  off  oxygen,  and  also 
arsenic,  which  first  takes  up  oxygen  and  then  gives  it  off.  The 
halogens,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  absorb  the  hydrogen  of  the 
tissues,  in  consequence  of  which  oxygen  in  the  nascent  state  (in 
addition  to  hydrochloric  acid)  is  set  free. 

The  degree  of  the  caustic  action  differs  with  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  individual  drugs  and  also  with  the  concentrations 
employed.  A  distinction  is  made  between  a  superficial  scab  forma- 
tion and  a  deeper  cauterization.  The  inorganic  acids,  silver 
nitrate,  copper  sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  iron  sulphate  and  lead 
nitrate  act  superficially,  while  formaldehyde,  the  caustic  alkalies, 
sulphuric  acid  and  chromic  acid  have  a  deep  action.  The  caustic 
effect  upon  the  skin  is  much  weaker  than  upon  the  mucous  mem- 
branes because  of  the  protective  layer  of  homy  epidermal  cells. 
The  dry  caustics,  especially  the  metallic  salts,  act  upon  the  skin 
generally  only  when  they  come  in  contact  with  fluids.  The  color 
of  the  eschar  differs  very  much.  Nitric  acid  produces  a  yellow 
eschar;  hydrochloric  acid,  a  gray;  sulphuric  acid,  brown  or  dark 
gray;  chromic  acid  and  formaldehyde,  yellow,  becoming  brown 
and  finally  black;  acetic  acid,  white;  silver  nitrate,  at  first  white, 
then  gray  and  finally  black. 


154         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Uses. — The  caustics  are  used  to  remove  neoplasms  when  they 
cannot  be  removed  by  operation.  In  general,  their  use  has 
diminished  very  much  with  the  progress  of  surgical  technic,  but  in 
veterinary  medicine  there  are  still  several  forms  of  neoplasms  for 
which  caustics  are  preferred  to  operation  on  practical  or  economical 
grounds.  In  canker  of  the  frog  especially  cauterization  with  for- 
maldehyde is  frequently  employed  instead  of  operating  because  of 
its  greater  simplicity  and  convenience.  In  addition,  caustics  are 
sometimes  used  in  the  treatment  of  fistulse  and  ulcers,  and  also  to 
regulate  the  healing  of  wounds,  especially  to  remove  exuberant 
granulations  (silver  nitrate).  The  expediency  of  the  earlier 
method  of  treating  hernise  with  caustics  may  be  left  in  abeyance. 
On  the  other  hand,  caustics  are  indicated  in  infected  and  poisoned 
wounds,  particularly  potassium  permanganate,  iron  chloride  and 
chromic  acid  in  snake  bites. 

Form. — The  caustics  are  used  in  different  forms,  partly  alone 
and  partly  in  combination  with  other  substances  (caustic  pastes, 
pencils,  points,  bougies,  sounds,  cords,  ligatures,  crystals  and 
powders). 

Drugs. — 1.  Liquor  formaldehydi.  Formaldehyde.  The  strong- 
est caustic;  very  penetrating  caustic  action  (be  cautious);  best 
caustic  in  canker  of  the  frog. 

2.  *Fuming  nitric  acid.  A  frequently  employed  and  valuable 
liquid  caustic  in  veterinary  medicine;  used  in  the  treatment  of 
canker  of  the  frog  and  to  remove  warts  and  small  neoplasms. 

3.  Acidum  sulphuricmn.  A  very  strong  caustic;  used  in  the 
treatment  of  shoe  boils,  canker  of  the  frog  and  other  neoplasms; 
use  cautiously. 

4.  Acidum  trichloraceticum.  Trichloracetic  acid.  A  good 
but  rather  expensive  caustic  for  canker  of  the  frog,  warts  and 
granulations. 

5.  *Vienna  paste.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  caustic  lime 
[calx]  and  caustic  potash  [potassii  hydroxidum]  with  sufficient 
alcohol  to  make  a  paste;  very  powerful  caustic  for  canker  of  the 
frog  and  carcinoma. 

6.  Zinci  chloridum.    A  strong  caustic;  used  in  ulcers,  fistulse, 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  155 

relaxed  granulations,  canker  of  the  frog  and  carcinoma  in  the  form 
of  caustic  paste  or  pencils. 

7.  Hydrargyri  chloridum  corrosivum.  Corrosive  sublimate. 
The  strongest  metallic  caustic;  used  in  the  form  of  crystals,  powder, 
paste  (1  :  1-5  flour),  salve  (1  :  1-10),  solution  (1  :  3-10  alcohol  or 
collodion),  bougies  or  caustic  ligature.  Hydrargyri  iodidum  ru- 
brum  has  the  same  action. 

8.  Chromii  trioxidum.  [Formerly  official  in  U.  S.  as  chromic 
acid.]  A  powerful,  painful  caustic  for  canker  of  the  frog,  car- 
cinoma and  other  neoplasms  in  solution,  salve,  paste  (1  :  1-5)  and 
bougies;  superior  alterative  action  in  scratches  of  long  standing 
(10  per  cent,  solution  in  water).     A  specific  in  snake  bites. 

9.  Arseni  trioxidum.  Arsenic.  An  old  caustic  in  breast  boils, 
shoe  boils,  canker  of  the  frog,  carcinoma,  quittor,  etc.,  in  the  form 
of  sticks,  paste,  salve  and  solution. 

10.  Argenti  nitras.  Silver  nitrate.  A  mild,  superficial  caustic 
(escharotic)  for  granulations,  fistulse  and  ulcers,  chromic  conjunc- 
tivitis and  very  small  warts;  used  in  pencil  form. 

11.  Cupri  sulphas.  Copper  sulphate.  A  caustic  in  ophthal- 
mology; used  for  granular  and  pannus  growths  on  the  conjunctiva, 
also  employed  in  fistulse  and  ulcers.  *Cuprum  aluminatimi  has  the 
same  action  and  uses  (copper  pencil). 

12.  Fern  sulphas.  Iron  sulphate.  A  mild  caustic  for  ulcers 
and  fistulse,  canker  of  the  frog,  the  foot  lesions  in  foot-and-mouth 
disease  and  chronic  affections  of  mucous  membranes.  Used  in 
powder  or  in  concentrated  solution. 

13.  Plumbi  acetas.  Lead  acetate.  A  mild  caustic  for  canker 
of  the  frog.     Plumbi  nitras  has  a  similar  action. 

14.  Fern  chloridum.  Iron  chloride.  A  caustic  for  canker  of 
the  frog  and  relaxed  granulations.  A  specific  against  the  virus  of 
rabies  and  snake  bites. 

15.  Hydrargyri  oxidum  flavum.  Yellow  oxide  of  mercury.  A 
mild  caustic  for  wounds  and  ulcers  (1  :  10) ;  also  used  as  a  caustic 
in  ophthalmology  (1  :  15-25). 

16.  Potassii  permanganas.  Potassium  permanganate.  A  spe- 
cific caustic  for  snake  bites. 


156        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

4.  FIRING.     CAUTERIZATION 

General. — Firing  is  one  of  the  oldest  methods  of  treatment  and 
specifically  a  veterinary  remedy,  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with 
even  to-day,  despite  the  large  number  of  similariy  acting  chemical 
substances  (caustics).  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  among  the  most  valu- 
able of  surgical  aids.  As  a  rule,  wrought  cautery  irons  of  various 
forms  (knife,  hatchet,  button,  conical  form,  etc.)  are  used  in  firing, 
in  addition  to  which  Paquelin's  platinum  cautery  apparatus  is 
used  in  clinics  and  on  small  animals.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  firing:  superficial  (point  and  line  firing),  percutaneous,  perforat- 
ing (spavin  firing)  and  subcutaneous.  (See  the  text-books  on 
operative  surgery.) 

Actions. — The  effects  of  firing  are  very  numerous: 

1.  The  immediate  result  is  a  local  destruction  of  tissue.  The 
heat  first  coagulates  the  albumin,  then  follows  the  formation  of  an 
eschar  and  carbonization.  Associated  with  this  action  is  the  dis- 
infecting and  haemostatic  effect  of  the  hot  iron. 

2.  A  hyperaemia  and  inflammatory  reaction  develops  in  the 
region  immediately  surrounding  the  cauterized  area.  The  circu- 
lation of  blood  and  resorption  are  stimulated  in  consequence.  An 
extensive  outwandering  of  white  blood-cells,  local  hj^erleucocy- 
tosis,  phagocytosis  and  histolysis  occurs,  similar  to  that  which 
follows  the  rubbing  in  of  tincture  of  iodine  (see  p.  148). 

3.  The  pronounced  irritation  of  the  cutaneous  nerves  acts 
reflexly  upon  the  nervous  system.  Firing  consequently  operates 
like  a  powerful  cutaneous  irritant  (principle  of  cutaneous  irritation 
and  counter  irritation). 

4.  The  eschar  which  results  from  firing  exerts,  according  to  the 
usual  acceptation,  a  mechanical  pressure  upon  the  underlying 
tissues  and  promotes,  like  massage,  the  resorption  of  the  patho- 
logical products  (?). 

Uses. — 1.  The  most  important  indications  for  the  employment 
of  the  firing  iron  are  the  chronic  inflammatory  conditions  of  the 
bones,  joints,  tendons  and  tendon  sheaths :  spavin,  ring  bone,  ex- 
ternal spavin  (rehbein),  curb,  splints,  chronic  arthritis,  tendinitis, 
tendovaginitis  and  articular  galls.     While  the  firing  iron  should 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  157 

be  used  only  on  the  chronic  inflammatory  affections  of  the 
tendons  and  tendon  sheaths  after  treatment  with  hydropathic 
dressings,  massage  and  blisters  has  proven  ineffective,  it  may  be 
employed  primarily  in  the  aforementioned  bone  and  deforming 
articular  inflammations,  especially  spavin,  ring  bone  and  splints. 
The  effect  of  firing  on  all  these  conditions  consists  essentially  in 
the  conversion  of  a  chronic  inflammation  into  a  more  rapidly  pro- 
gressing acute  process.  The  reactive  inflammation  set  up  in  the 
affected  bone,  tendon  or  articulation  brings  about  a  more  rapid 
resorption  of  the  inflammatory  products,  promotes  the  inflam- 
matory reproductive  processes,  and  in  joints  hastens  ankylosis, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  pain  and  lameness  are  removed 
(spavin,  ring  bone). 

2.  The  firing  iron  is  used  for  operative  purposes  on  fistulse,  neo- 
plasms and  ulcers;  as  a  haemostatic,  particularly  in  amputation  of 
the  tail,  and  for  the  disinfection  of  infected  wounds  (rabies,  an- 
thrax, glanders,  snake  bites). 

3.  It  is  also  employed  as  an  excitant,  although  more  rarely,  in 
the  treatment  of  paraljrtic  conditions  of  the  spinal  cord  and  periph- 
eral nerve  branches  (parturient  apoplexy,  spinal  and  peripheral 
paralyses). 

5.  ASTRINGENTS 

Synonyms:  Exsiccants,  coagulants,  tonics;  contracting,  drying,  tanning, 
albumin-coagulating,  condensing,  toning  remedies. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  term  astringents  is  used  to  describe 
drugs  which  exert  a  contracting,  drying,  condensing  action  upon 
the  skin  and  mucous  membranes.  They  are  most  frequently  em- 
ployed in  catarrhs  of  the  mucous  membranes,  with  excessive 
catarrhal  secretion  or  extensive  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
e.g.,  in  catarrhs  of  the  intestinal,  buccal,  pharyngeal,  bronchial, 
conjunctival,  bladder,  uterine,  vaginal  and  preputial  mucous  mem- 
branes, and  in  prolapses  of  the  vagina,  uterus  and  rectum.  They 
are  also  used  in  inflammatory,  eczematous  and  ulcerous  processes 
of  the  skin;  in  otorrhoea;  as  injections  in  fistulae  and  serous  sacs; 


158        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

to  check  parenchymatous  bleeding,  and,  empirically,  in  galactor- 
rhcea,  polyuria  and  nephritis. 

In  their  method  of  action  they  are  very  different.  Some  cause 
a  contraction  and  narrowing  of  the  capillaries  with  consecutive 
ansemia  (metallic  salts),  thus  overcoming  inflammatory  hypersemia 
of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes  and  decreasing  the  secretions. 
Others  combine  with  the  albumin,  mucus,  and  gelatin-containing 
substance  of  the  secretions  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes 
and  form  a  solid  precipitate  and  produce,  like  the  caustics,  a  super- 
ficial condensation  and  desiccation  of  the  tissues,  forming  a  kind 
of  scab  or  protective  covering  (tannin).  A  third  group  operates 
by  withdrawing  water  and  shrinking  (alcohol),  and  a  fourth 
group  purely  mechanically  through  compression  (collodion). 
Most  of  the  astringents  possess  a  disinfectant  action  and,  in 
the  stronger  concentrations,  are  caustics.  (See  the  chapter  on 
caustics.) 

Drugs. — 1.  The  metallic  astringents:  alum,  aluminum  acetate, 
ferric  chloride  solution,  iron  sulphate,  lead  acetate  and  nitrate, 
silver  nitrate,  corrosive  sublimate,  zinc  chloride  and  sulphate, 
copper  sulphate,  zinc  oxide,  bismuth  nitrate,  subnitrate,  subsali- 
cylate and  subgallate,  aluminum  hydroxide,  calcium  carbonate  and 
lime  water. 

2.  Tannic  acid,  tannoform  and  the  tannin-containing  vegetable 
astringents:  white  oak  bark,  cinchona,  rhubarb,  nutgall,  catechu 
[replaced  by  gambir  in  U.  S.  P.],  rhatany  root,  tormentilla  root, 
salvia,  uva  ursi,  folia  juglandis,  coffee  and  roasted  acorns. 

3.  Alcohol  and  all  alcoholic  liquids  (tinctura  aloes,  tinctura 
myrrhse,  tinctura  iodi). 

4.  Iodine,  especially  in  combination  with  alcohol  (iodine  tinc- 
ture) and  glycerin. 

5.  Tar,  creolin,  creosote  and  other  related  substances. 

6.  Ethereal  oils,  balsams  and  resins  (turpentine  oil,  turpentine, 
Peru  balsam). 

7.  Glycerin  and  sodium  chloride  (withdrawal  of  water). 

8.  Collodion  (mechanical  compression)  and  other  pressure 
agents. 


SKIN  AND  MUCOUS  MEMBRANES  159 

9.  Ergot,  hydrastis,  cocaine  and  adrenalin.  (The  latter  con- 
tracts the  vessels  of  the  conjunctiva  and  iris.) 

10.  Cold  in  the  form  of  ice  or  cold  applications. 

Antiphlogistics. — A  series  of  medicaments  which  it  was  formerly  custom- 
ary to  use  in  inflammatory  conditions  of  all  kinds  were  classified  in  the  old 
therapeutics  under  the  name  of  antiphlogistics,  or  remedies  which  combat 
inflammation  (refrigerants,  temperants).  In  this  group  were  included  the 
astringents,  bleeding  and  other  methods  of  local  bloodletting,  hydrotherapy 
(Priessnitz),  cold,  mercury  and  potassium  nitrate.  Inflammations  due  to 
infection  are  now  treated  with  antiseptics  (carbohc  acid,  iodoform,  camphor, 
alcohol,  salicylic  acid,  calomel).  Astringents  with  antiseptic  action  are  also 
employed  (silver  nitrate,  copper  sulphate,  lead  acetate,  alum,  tannin,  cold). 
Moreover,  inflammation  is  not  a  disease  but,  like  fever,  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  reactive  natural  heahng  process  which  in  itself  does  not  need  to  be  combated. 

Drugs  which  have  an  action  opposed  to  the  antiphlogistics  were  formerly 
classified  as  calefacients,  i.e.,  heating  agents.  They  are  indicated  in  abnormal 
sinking  of  the  body  temperature  (freezing,  loss  of  blood,  last  stages  of  poison- 
ing and  infectious  diseases).  In  addition  to  the  external  and  internal  employ- 
ment of  heat  (warm  bandages,  warm  drinks),  the  calefacients  also  include 
caffeine,  which  rapidly  increases  the  temperature  from  0.5  to  V  C.  Small 
doses  of  alcohol  exert  a  similar  effect. 

Anticatarrhalics. — AU  of  the  drugs  used  in  the  treatment  of  catarrhs  were 
formerly  classified  as  anticatarrhalics.  The  group  included  particularly  the 
astringents,  expectorants,  antiseptics  and  resorbents  (alkalies). 

Antidyscratics. — The  terms  antidyscratics,  alterants  and  metasyncritics 
wereused  in  the  older  therapeutics  to  designate  a  series  of  so-called  blood-purify- 
ing medicines  which  were  employed  empirically  in  the  treatment  of  different 
dyscrasias  and  cachexias.  The  group  was  further  subdivided  into  antiscrofu- 
lous,  anticarcinomatous,  antisyphihtic,  antiscorbutic,  antarthritic,  anti- 
rheumatic. Arsenic,  mercury,  iodine,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  antimony,  the 
alkalies  and  the  so-called  "wood-drinks"  for  man  (sarsaparilla,  sassafras) 
were  regarded  as  alterative  drugs.  The  action  which  is  really  obtained  from 
these  drugs  is  partly  specifically  antiseptic  (mercury,  iodine),  partly  resorbent 
(arsenic)  and  partly  diuretic  or  diaphoretic  (alkalies,  hot  water). 


DRUGS  THAT  KILL  PARASITES.    ANTIPARASITICS 

1.  EXTERNAL  ANTIPARASITICS.     ANTEPIZOA 

Synonyms:  Antiscabious,  antipsorics,  antipediculous,  antiphthiriacs; 
mange  remedies. 

Parasites  of  the  Skin. — The  numerous  epizoa  infesting  the 
skin  of  the  domesticated  animals  which  are  to  be  combated  with 
antiparasitic  remedies  may  be  divided  into  two  groups :  animal  and 
vegetable.  The  animal  parasites  include  the  mange  mites,  of 
which  there  are  four  species:  sarcoptes,  dermatocoptes,  dermato- 
phagus  and  dermatoryctes;  the  acarus  mites  [demodex  follicu- 
lorum],  fleas,  lice,  hair  and  feather  insects  [mallophagae],  ticks, 
forest  flies,  bird  mites,  harvest  mites,  oestrus  larvse,  gad  flies, 
flies  and  gnats;  also  the  different  bird  mites:  feather-follicle 
mites,  feather-quill  mites,  feather  mites,  pigeon  mites,  etc.  Of 
the  vegetable  skin  parasites,  the  most  important  are  trichophjrton 
tonsurans  (herpes)  and  achorion  Schonleinii  (favus). 

Action  of  the  Antiparasitics. — The  antiparasitic  medicines 
operate  upon  the  skin  parasites  by  different  processes.  Some 
apparently  act  like  the  specific  nerve  poisons,  stunning  and  para- 
lyzing the  parasites.  To  this  group  belong  the  ethereal  oils,  nico- 
tine, veratrin,  carbolic  acid,  creolin  and  other  aromatic  substances 
of  the  benzol  series,  and  hydrogen  sulphide.  Other  antiparasitics 
act  like  the  caustics,  particularly  the  mercurial  and  arsenical 
preparations.  If,  for  example,  a  louse  is  removed  from  the  skin 
after  the  application  of  mercurial  ointment  and  examined  under 
the  microscope,  there  is  observed  a  corrosive  inflammation  of  the 
digestive  tract  which  is  manifested  by  a  bloody,  profuse  diarrhoea. 
The  alkaUes,  soda  lye,  potash  lye,  caustic  lime  and  soap,  dissolve 
the  external  chitinous  layer  of  the  mange  mites.  Finally,  some 
agents  operate  in  a  mechanical  way  by  closing  the  air  canals,  as 
occurs,  for  instance,  in  the  use  of  fatty  oils  on  ticks. 

Classification. — The  external  antiparasitics  may  be  divided 
160 


ANTIPARASITICS  161 

either  according  to  their  action  into  mange  remedies,  remedies 
against  fleas,  lice,  ticks,  gad  flies,  etc.,  or  according  to  their  chemical 
composition.  The  chemical  subdivisions  include  antiparasitics 
from  the  group  of  ethereal  oils:  Peru  balsam,  styrax,  turpentine 
oil,  oil  of  anise,  oil  of  caraway,  flores  pyrethri,  petroselinum;  alka- 
loidal  antiparasitics:  nicotine,  veratrin,  cevadilla  seed,  staphy- 
sagria;  benzol  derivatives:  creolin,  lysol,  bacillol,  carbolic  acid, 
tar, creosote, salicylic  acid,naphthalin,naphthol;  metallic  remedies: 
mercurial  preparations,  arsenic,  sulphur;  alkalies:  soap,  soda, 
potassium,  caustic  potash,  caustic  soda,  caustic  lime.  The  first 
mentioned  form  of  classification  is  most  suitable  for  practical 
therapeutics;  according  to  this  method  the  antiparasitics  are 
divided  into  the  following  groups: 

Mange  Remedies. — The  most  important  are  creolin,  tobacco, 
arsenic,  corrosive  sublimate,  Peru  balsam,  carbolic  acid,  tar,  creo- 
sote, lysol,  bacillol,  sulphur,  soap,  soda,  potassium,  lime.  The  fol- 
lowing baths  or  "dips"  are  used  in  the  treatment  of  sheep  scab: 

1.  Frohner's  bath.  Apply  creolin  liniment  (creolin  1,  alcohol 
1,  green  soap  8)  three  to  five  days,  then  bathe  twice  in  23^  per 
cent,  creolin  solution. 

2.  Gerlach's  bath,  (a)  Preparatory  bath:  potash  2,  lime  1, 
water  50.  (b)  The  mange  bath  proper:  3  per  cent,  tobacco 
decoction  (Roloff's  modification:  5  per  cent,  tobacco  decoction). 

3.  Ziindel's  bath:  crude  carbolic  acid  1.5,  lime  1,  soda  3,  soft 
soap  3,  water  260.  A  modification  of  this  bath  is  to  use  2  per 
cent,  tobacco  decoction  in  place  of  the  water. 

4.  Tessier  and  Matthieu's  bath:  arsenic  1  to  1.5,  iron  sulphate 
or  alum  10  to  15,  water  100. 

[Lime  and  sulphur  dip :  Mix  8  pounds  of  unslaked  lime  and  24 
pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  add  30  gallons  of  water  and  boil  for 
not  less  than  two  hours.  Allow  sediment  to  settle,  draw  off  the 
clear  liquid  and  dilute  up  to  100  gallons.  Use  at  a  temperature  of 
100  to  110°  F.  and  keep  each  sheep  in  the  dip  two  minutes,  ducking 
its  head  at  least  once;  repeat  in  10  days. 

Tobacco  and  sulphur  dip:  Take  one  pound  of  tobacco  leaves 
for  each  6  gallons  of  dip  desired,  place  in  a  covered  boiler,  cover 


162        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

with  cold  or  lukewarm  water  and  let  stand  24  hours;  bring  to  a 
boil  the  evening  before  using,  and  let  stand  over  night.  Take  1 
pound  of  flowers  of  sulphur  for  each  6  gallons  of  dip  desired  and 
mix  in  a  bucket  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  gruel.  When 
ready  to  use,  strain  the  tobacco  infusion,  expressing  the  liquid 
from  the  tobacco  leaves;  mix  the  infusion  with  the  sulphur  gruel, 
and  add  suflicient  water  to  make  the  desired  quantity  of  dip. 
Use  at  a  temperature  of  100  to  110°  F.  and  keep  each  sheep  in  the 
dip  two  minutes,  ducking  its  head  at  least  once;  repeat  in  10  days. 
Extracts  of  tobacco  and  nicotine  solutions  are  on  the  market  which 
may  be  used  in  place  of  the  tobacco  leaves,  thus  simplifying  the 
preparation  of  the  dip.  These  substances  should  be  used  in  a 
quantity  which  will  produce  a  mixture  containing  not  less  than 
five  one-hundredths  of  one  per  cent,  of  nicotine  and  2  per  cent,  of 
flowers  of  sulphur.] 

Remedies  against  Acarus  Mites  [Demodex]. — Peru  balsam, 
creolin,  corrosive  sublimate,  sulphurated  potash,  cantharides  oint- 
ment, oil  of  caraway,  formaldehyde,  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

Remedies  against  Lice. — Mercurial  ointment,  creolin,  lysol, 
bacillol,  arsenic,  tobacco,  corrosive  sublimate,  insect  powder, 
stavesacre  seeds,  cevadilla  seeds,  white  hellebore,  aniseed.  These 
are  also  employed  against  the  hair  parasites  [mallophagae]. 

Remedies  against  Fleas. — Persian  insect  powder. 

Remedies  against  Feather  Parasites. — Oil  of  anise,  insect 
powder,  petroselinum,  Peru  balsam,  creolin.  The  same  remedies 
are  used  against  the  other  skin  parasites  of  birds. 

Remedies  against  Ticks. — OHve  oil,  turpentine  oil,  carbolic 
acid  in  oil,  creolin  in  oil. 

[Arsenic  has  been  found  very  effective  for  destroying  ticks  on 
cattle.  The  solution  is  prepared  as  follows:  25  gallons  of  water  are 
placed  in  a  caldron  and  brought  to  a  boil;  24  pounds  of  sodium  car- 
bonate are  added  and  dissolved  by  stirring;  8  pounds  of  arsenic  are 
then  added  and  the  mixture  stirred  until  it  is  dissolved.  The  fire 
is  then  drawn  and  when  the  solution  has  cooled  down  to  140°  F., 
one  gallon  of  pine  tar  is  slowly  added  and  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  solution  by  stirring.    Sufficient  water  is  at  once  added  to  make 


ANTIPARASITICS  163 

the  total  volume  of  the  solution  500  gallons.  The  regulations  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  require  that  when  the  solution  is  to 
be  used  as  a  dip  for  cattle  which  are  to  be  shipped  out  of  the 
quarantined  area  25  pounds  of  sodium  carbonate  and  10  pounds  of 
arsenic  shall  be  used  for  each  500  gallons.  In  tick  eradication,  the 
solution  is  applied  as  a  spray  or  in  the  form  of  a  dip  or  bath, 
repeated  every  two  or  three  weeks.] 

Remedies  against  Forest  Flies. — Creolin,  tobacco,  mercurial 
ointment.  > 

Remedies  against  CEstrus  Flies. — Tar,  creolin,  asafoetida, 
petroleum. 

Remedies  against  Herpes  and  Favus. — Salicylic  acid,  creolin, 
creosote,  tincture  of  iodine,  tar,  mercurial  ointment,  ammoniated 
mercurial  ointment,  corrosive  sublimate,  carbolic  acid. 

Drugs. — 1.  *Creolin.  Creolin  (creolinum  anglicum)  is  the  most 
used  antiparasitic.  In  the  treatment  of  sheep  scab  it  is  applied 
for  several  days  in  the  form  of  a  10  per  cent,  liniment:  creolin  and 
sapo  mollis,  1  part  of  each,  alcohol  8  parts.  This  is  followed  by  a 
bath  or  dip  in  a  2H  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin,  which  is  repeated 
in  8  days.  Against  sarcoptic  mange  of  the  horse  and  dog,  a  10  per 
cent,  liniment  of  creolin,  soap  and  alcohol  is  also  employed.  A  10 
to  15  per  cent,  alcoholic  solution  is  used  against  acarus  [demodectic] 
mange.  Washings  with  3  per  cent,  solution  in  water  are  em- 
ployed against  lice,  forest  flies,  etc.  Creolin  ointment  is  used 
against  herpes,  chicken  mange  and  ticks.  Birds  infested  with 
vermin  may  be  sprayed  with  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin  in 
water  or  given  a  bath  in  a  warm  J^  per  cent,  creolin  solution,  fol- 
lowed by  a  bath  in  water.  *LysoP  and  *bacilloP  have  a  similar 
action. 

2.  Pixliquida.  Tar.  A  very  good  remedy  against  horse  mange 
in  the  form  of  Vienna  tar  liniment:  pix  liquida  and  sulphur  sub- 
limatum,  1  part  of  each;  sapo  mollis  and  alcohol,  2  parts  of  each; 
also  used  against  mange  of  dogs,  herpes,  etc.,  in  ointment  or  in 
alcohol  (1  :  10). 

[1  Liquor  cresolis  compositus,  which  is  official  in  the  U.  S.,  is  essentially 
the  same  as  these  compounds.] 


164        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

3.  Creosotum.  Creosote.  A  good  but  very  poisonous  remedy 
against  mange  of  the  dog  and  horse  in  the  form  of  creosoted  oil 
(1  :  10). 

4.  Phenol.  Carbolic  acid.  A  remedy  against  sheep  scab, 
usually  in  combination  with  tobacco. 

5.  *Tabaciim.  Tobacco.  A  remedy  against  sheep  scab  and 
mange  in  horses.  The  tobacco  dip  or  bath  for  scab  or  mange  is  a 
decoction  of  7J^  kilograms  [20  pounds]  of  tobacco  in  250  liters  [250 
quarts]  of  water,  to  which  is  added  1  kilogram  [2.68  pounds]  each  of 
pure  carbolic  acid  and  potash.  A  1  to  5  per  cent,  decoction  of 
tobacco  or  of  tobacco-lye  is  also  used  against  Hce,  fleas,  etc. 

6.  Arseni  trioxidiim.  Arsenic.  The  strongest  but  also  the 
most  poisonous  remedy  against  scab  in  sheep  and  mange  in  horses. 
The  arsenical  dip  or  bath  for  sheep  is  ordinarily  a  1  per  cent,  solu- 
tion (combined  with  potash,  alum,  iron  sulphate  or  aloes).  As  a 
wash  for  mange  in  the  horse  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  arsenious 
acetate  is  used. 

7.  Hydrargyri  chloridum  corrosivum.  Corrosive  sublimate. 
A  very  powerful  but  also  extremely  poisonous  antiparasitic  against 
mange  mites,  acarus,  herpes,  lice,  etc. 

8.  Unguentum  hydrargyri.  Mercurial  ointment.  A  good 
remedy  against  lice.    Formerly  used  also  against  sheep  scab. 

9.  Balsamum  Peruvianum.  Peru  balsam.  A  good  and  mild  but 
expensive  mange  remedy  for  dogs;  used  undiluted  or  in  alcohol 
(1  :  1  £o  10).  A  specific  against  acarus  [demodectic]  mange.  The 
modem  substitutes  for  Peru  balsam:  *perugen  (artificial  Peru 
balsam),  *peruskabin  and  *peruol  (synthetic  benzyl  benzoate) 
have  a  similar  action. 

10.  Sulphur  lotum,  sulphur  praecipitatum,  sulphur  sublima- 
tum.  Sulphur.  A  specific  against  mange  of  cats  in  the  form 
of  Helmerich's  ointment  (2  parts  sulphur,  1  part  potash,  10  parts 
lard). 

11.  *Potassa  sulphurata.  Liver  of  sulphur.  A  specific  against 
acarus  mange  in  the  form  of  1  to  2  per  cent,  baths. 

12.  *Insect  powder.  The  most  used  remedy  against  fleas, 
feather  insects,  and  fowl  mites. 


ANTIPARASITICS  165 

13.  Oleum  anisi.  Principal  remedy  against  vermin  of  house 
birds;  sprinkled  or  sprayed  in  1  per  cent,  solution.  Oleum  can  has 
the  same  action. 

14.  Oleum  terebinthinae.  Oil  of  turpentine.  A  specific  against 
ticks. 

15.  Acidum  salicylicum.  Salicylic  acid.  A  specific  against 
herpes  in  5-10  per  cent,  solution  in  alcohol. 

16.  Alkalies.  These  are  used  to  assist  the  action  of  mange 
baths  or  dips. 

2.  WORM  REMEDIES.    ANTHELMINTICS 

Synonyms:  Vermifuges,  antentozoa,  antitaenics;  worm-expelling,  worm- 
destroying  remedies;  tapeworm  remedies. 

Intestinal  Worms. — Not  all  entozoa  can  be  expelled  from  the 
body  by  medicines.  Distomse  and  echinococci  in  the  liver  and 
lungs,  cysticerci  and  trichinae  in  the  muscles,  giant  palisade  worms 
(Eustrongylus  gigas)  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidneys,  strongylus  arma- 
tus  in  aneurisms  in  the  anterior  mesenteric  artery,  coenuri  in  the 
brain,  and  some  intestinal  worms  are  not  accessible  to  medi- 
caments. But  most  of  the  intestinal  worms  can  be  effectively 
removed  by  medicines.  The  parasites  of  the  digestive  apparatus 
of  greatest  importance  are: 

1.  Tapeworms:  taenia  cucumerina,  serrata,  marginata,  ccen- 
urus  and  echinococcus,  and  bothriocephalus  latus  in  dogs;  taenia 
perfoliata,  plicata  and  mamillana  in  horses;  taenia  expansa  and 
ovilla  in  sheep;  taenia  expansa,  denticulata  and  alba  in  cattle; 
taenia  expansa  in  goats;  taenia  crassicolHs  and  elliptica  in  cats; 
taenia  infundibuliformis,  etc.,  in  birds. 

2.  Round  worms:  ascaris  megalocephala  in  horses,  ascaris 
marginata  in  dogs,  ascaris  mystax  in  cats,  ascaris  lumbricoides  in 
cattle  and  swine,  heteracis  inflexa,  etc.,  in  birds. 

3.  Palisade  worms:  strongylus  armatus  and  tetracanthus  in 
the  intestinal  canal  of  the  horse;  strongylus  contortus  in  the  abo- 
masum  of  sheep ^  (stomach-worm  disease);  dochmius  trigonoceph- 
alus  in  the  intestine  of  the  dog. 

P  Also  affects  calves  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States.] 


166        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

4.  Seat-worms:  oxyuris  curvula,  vivapara  and  mastigodes  in 
horses;  oxyuris  vermicularis  in  the  dog. 

5.  Spiroptera  sanguinalenta  in  the  stomach  of  the  dog. 
Another  entozoon  of  the  digestive  apparatus  is  the  gastrus 

larva,  which  is  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  and  which  is 
resistant  to  most  of  the  worm  medicines.  The  entoparasites  of  the 
respiratory  apparatus  which  are  at  least  partially  accessible  to 
treatment  include:  oestrus  ovis  in  the  nasal  cavities  and  nasal 
sinuses  of  sheep;  strongylus  filaria  in  sheep  (lung-worm  disease), 
strongylus  micrurus  in  calves,  strongylus  paradoxus  in  swine;  pen- 
tastomum  tsenioides  in  the  nasal  cavities  of  the  dog;  syngamus 
trachealis  in  fowl.  In  addition  to  these,  vegetable  parasites 
(moulds,  actinomyces)  also  occur  in  the  air  passages. 

Action  of  Worm  Remedies. — The  anthelmintics  are  generally 
regarded  as  specific  nerve  poisons  which  kill  the  entozoa  imme- 
diately or  which  temporarily  stupefy  and  paralyze  them,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  they  become  detached  from  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  and  are  in  part  expelled  and  in  part  digested.  Accord- 
ing to  their  chemical  properties,  anthelmintics  may  be  classified  as 
ethereal  oils  (turpentine  oil,  oleoresin  of  aspidium,  oleum  tanaceti) ; 
alkaloids  (areca  nut,  pomegranate  bark) ;  glucositic  acids  (santonin, 
mallotoxin,  kosin,  filicic  acid) ;  benzol  derivatives  (creolin,  tar,  creo- 
sote, picric  acid,  naphthalin,  benzine)  and  metals  (arsenic,  tartar 
emetic,  copper  oxide).  For  therapeutic  purposes,  it  is  most  desir- 
able to  classify  the  anthelmintics  according  to  the  species  of  worms 
against  which  they  are  used,  as  follows : 

Tapeworm  Remedies:  kamala,  aspidium,  oleoresin  of  aspid- 
ium, areca  nut,  kousso,  pomegranate  bark,  copper  oxide,  potas- 
sium picrate. 

Roimd-worm  Remedies:  tartar  emetic,  arsenic,  santonin, 
santonica,  turpentine  oil. 

Remedies  against  Lung  Worms:  turpentme  oil,  creolin,  tar. 

Remedies  against  Oxyuri:  garlic,  vinegar,  soap,  [quassia]. 

Remedies  against  Gastrus  Larvae  [Bots] :  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

Against  strongylus  armatus  and  tetracanthus,  also  dochmius, 
spiroptera,  and  other  intestinal  worms  in  the  horse,  one  of  the 


ANTIPARASITICS  167 

aforementioned  round-worm  remedies  is  used;  in  dogs,  one  of  the 
tapeworm  remedies. 

Drugs. — 1.  *Kamala.  A  tapeworm  remedy  for  dogs.  It  is 
also  a  drastic  cathartic  and  the  simultaneous  administration  of  a 
purgative  is  therefore  not  necessary.  Dose  for  large  dogs,  5-15, 
5i  to  iv;  small  dogs,  2-5,  grs.  xxx  to  5i;  cats  and  chickens,  1—2, 
grs.  XV  to  xxx;  pigeons  and  parrots,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv. 

2.  Oleoresina  aspidii.  Oleoresin  of  aspidium.  A  very  effective 
but  very  poisonous  tseniacide.  Dose  for  large  dogs,  2-5,  grs.  xxx 
to  5i;  small  dogs,  0.2-1,  grs.  iij  to  xv. 

3.  *Areca.  Areca  nut.  Betel  nut.  A  very  good  remedy 
against  tapeworms  and  round  worms.  Dose  for  horses,  100-200, 
5 iij  to  vj ;  dogs,  5-10,  5i  to  ijss;  sheep,  5-10,  5i  to  ijss;  swine,  5-15, 
5i  to  iv;  chickens  and  geese,  2-4,  grs.  xxx  to  5i;  pigeons,  0.5-1,  grs. 
vij  to  XV. 

4.  Antimonii  et  potassii  tartras.  Tartar  emetic.  A  valuable 
anthelmintic  against  tapeworms  and  round  worms  of  horses. 
Dose,  10-15,  3 ijss  to  iv,  per  day  in  the  drinking  water  for  2  to  4 
days. 

5.  Oleum  terebinthinae.  Oil  of  turpentine.  A  very  good 
remedy  against  round  worms  in  horses  (50,  5iss). 

6.  Arseni  trioxidum.  Arsenic.  The  same.  Dose  for  horses, 
1-3,  grs.  XV  to  xlv.^  The  new  arsenical  preparations,  *Atoxyl  and 
*Salvarsan,  have  proven  effective  remedies  against  trypanosomes 
and  spirilla. 

7.  Santoninum.  Santonin.  A  specific  against  round  worms 
of  horses  and  dogs.     Dose  for  dogs,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  J^  to  iij. 

8.  Carbonei  bisulphidum.  Bisulphide  of  carbon.  A  remedy 
against  gastrus  larvae  and  round  worms  in  horses.  Dose,  8-12, 
5ij  to  iij,  in  capsules,  every  hour  until  4  doses  have  been  given. 

These  eight  remedies  are  sufficient  for  veterinary  practice. 
The  patient  should  be  prepared  for  the  anthelmintic  by  being 
starved  a  day  before  the  medicine  is  administered.  A  few  hours 
after  the  anthelmintic  is  given  a  purgative  should  be  administered, 

P  Gerlach  reported  that  20  grains  of  arsenic  caused  acute  diarrhoea  in  a 
horse.— Finlay  Dun,  Veterinary  Medicines,  10th  ed.,  p.  274.J 


168        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

except  in  the  case  of  kamala  and  tartar  emetic.  To  assist  the 
action  of  the  worm  remedy,  salted  meat  is  given  to  carnivora,  and 
sugar  beets,  carrots  and  raw  potatoes  to  herbivora. 

Other  anthelmintics  are:  Cusso  (dogs,  10-25,  Sijss  to  vj), 
granatum  (dogs,  5-50,  3i  to  xij),  pelletierinae  tannas  (dogs,  0.2-0.4, 
grs.  iij  to  vj),  *tanacetum  (horses  and  cattle,  50-100,  §iss  to  iij), 
*cupri  oxidum  (horses,  2-15.  grs.  xxx  to  Siijss;  dogs,  0.05-0.1,  grs. 
%  to  jss;  sheep,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv),  *acidum  picricum  and 
*potassii  picras  (lambs,  of  the  former,  0.1-0.2,  grs.  jss  to  iij;  of 
the  latter,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv) ,chloroformum  (dogs,  1-4,  iijxv  to  3  i), 
*creolin,  naphthalenum,  pix  liquida,creosotum,  benzinum,  *petro- 
leum,  ^absinthium,  asafoetida)  ^allium  and  pepo. 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS 

S3nionyms:  Aseptics,  colyseptics,  antizymotics,  antifermentatives,  anti- 
putrids,  conservants,  preservants;  putrefaction  and  fermentation-combating 
remedies;  conserving  remedies,  preserving  remedies. 

1.  DISINFECTION  IN  GENERAL 

Historical. — The  practical  application  of  disinfection,  i.e.j  the 
destruction  of  pathogenic  or  putrefactive  bacteria  or  the  preven- 
tion of  their  growth,  is  very  old.  In  this  connection,  it  is  only- 
necessary  to  mention  the  unrivalled  technique  used  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians  in  embalming  the  body.  The  scientific  foundation 
of  disinfection,  however,  is  of  more  recent  date.  The  new  era 
began  with  the  investigations  of  Pasteur  concerning  the  yeasts  and 
with  the  work  of  Lister,  who  in  1867  for  the  first  time  studied  the 
effect  of  disinfection  upon  the  healing  of  wounds  and  introduced 
carbolic  acid  as  a  disinfectant.  The  further  development  of  dis- 
infection is  closely  connected  with  bacteriology  and  its  more  recent 
experimental  discoveries,  with  which  the  names  of  Pasteur  and  R. 
Koch  especially  are  associated.  The  first  fundamental  work  of  the 
latter  was  published  in  1881  (Ueber  Disinfektion,  Mitteilungen  aus 
dem  Kaiserl.  Gesundheitsamte,  1881).  From  this  time  on  the 
knowledge  of  disinfection  is  so  intimately  related  to  bacteriology 
that  to  a  certain  degree  it  forms  a  part  of  that  subject.  And  since 
the  science  of  bacteriology  is  in  a  state  of  continual  progressive 
development,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  present  principles  of 
disinfection  may  undergo  certain  changes  in  the  future.  To 
direct  attention  to  the  incomplete  and  unsettled  condition  of  our 
present  knowledge  and  conception  of  disinfection  at  the  oustet  is 
one  of  the  most  important  tasks  of  general  therapeutics.  It  conse- 
quently follows  that  a  conclusive  statement  of  our  knowledge  of 
disinfection  cannot  be  made.  This  is  the  less  feasible  because  the 
infectious  agents  of  some  of  the  important  plagues  (foot-and-mouth 
disease,  contagious  pneumonia  of  horses,  influenza,  pox,  etc.)  have 
not  as  yet  been  demonstrated  bacteriologically,  and  the  knowledge 
concerning  disinfection  for  these  diseases  will,  therefore,  have  to  be 

169 


170        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

subsequently  entirely  revised  on  a  scientific  basis.  Nevertheless, 
the  investigations  which  have  been  made  up  to  this  time  have 
furnished  a  series  of  important  viewpoints  concerning  general 
and  special  disinfection  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  permanent 
acquisition  and  as  a  preliminary  foundation  for  a  rational 
and  scientific  system  of  disinfection.  The  foundation  of  the 
modem  antisepsis  and  disinfection  must  be  explained  first  of 
all.  This  explanation  will  include  the  meaning  of  the  different 
termS;  antisepsis  and  asepsis,  colyseptics  (inhibit  development) 
and  antiseptics  (destroy  bacteria) ;  the  methods  of  bacteriological 
investigation;  the  differences  in  the  individual  bacteria  and  dis- 
infectants; the  differences  between  bacilli  and  spores;  method  of 
action,  form,  concentration,  application  and  properties  of  the  indi- 
vidual medicines;  the  relation  of  the  animal  body  or  the  infected 
object  to  the  disinfectant;  the  cooperation  of  certain  factors 
(temperature,  light) ;  the  importance  of  cleaning  and  preparation, 
and  the  time  and  continuance  of  the  disinfectant  action. 

Antisepsis  and  Asepsis. — Starting  with  the  conception  that 
infection  of  wounds  could  be  prevented  by  the  employment  of 
antiseptics — i.e.,  drugs  which  destroy  bacteria — and  by  a  carefully 
applied  dressing.  Lister  in  1867  recommended  carbolic  acid  in  con- 
nection with  the  dressing  named  after  him  as  a  method  of  dis- 
infecting wounds.  Lister's  dressing  was  applied  as  follows:  After 
the  wound  was  cleaned  with  a  2  to  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  water,  and  the  air  above  it  disinfected  with  a  spray  of  the  car- 
bolic acid  solution,  it  was  covered  with  a  piece  of  carbolized  silk  or 
cotton  (protective) ;  over  this  was  laid  a  thick  layer  of  carbolized 
gauze  or  cotton,  which  was  covered  with  a  piece  of  impervious  cotton 
material  (mackintosh),  and  over  all  was  placed  a  bandage  of  moist 
carbolized  gauze.  In  Germany,  the  Lister  dressing  was  intro- 
duced into  general  use  between  1872  and  1875.  Later,  the  car- 
bolic spray  was  omitted  and  the  dressing  simplified.  In  1880, 
iodoform  was  substituted  for  carbolic  acid  and  the  dry  bandage 
took  the  place  of  the  moist.  Subsequently,  iodoform  was  re- 
placed in  part  by  corrosive  sublimate,  creolin,  lysol,  tannoform, 
tincture  of  iodine,  and  other  disinfectants. 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  171 

In  recent  times  the  use  of  antiseptics  has  been  limited  in  human 
surgery  and  for  a  time  they  were  even  given  up  entirely.  Schim- 
melbusch  and  others  contended  that  the  development  of  germs  in  a 
wound  could  not  be  prevented  with  certainty  by  disinfectants 
even  when  they  w^re  applied  as  early  as  one  minute  after  the 
infection;  disinfection  was  therefore  not  only  ineffective,  but  also 
harmful,  because  it  irritated  the  tissues  and  increased  the  wound 
secretions.  In  place  of  the  antiseptic  wound  treatment,  the  aseptic 
method  was  proposed.  Antiseptic  fluids  are  not  employed  in  the 
latter  method,  but  the  wound  is  kept  as  dry  as  possible  by  means  of 
sterilized  tampons,  or  is  irrigated  only  with  sterile  water  or  sterile 
physiological  salt  solution,  and  then  covered  with  sterilized  dress- 
ing material.  The  latter  is  sterilized  in  a  special  apparatus  by 
prolonged  (20  to  30  minutes)  exposure  to  live  steam  of  at  least 
100°  C.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  instruments  are  made  germ-free. 
They  are  most  certainly  sterilized,  however,  by  prolonged  boiling 
in  a  1  to  2  per  cent,  soda  solution.  Especial  care  is  given  to  the 
disinfection  of  the  operator's  hands.  After  the  nails  are  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  the  hands  are  carefully  brushed  with  soap  and 
warm  water,  then  washed  with  warm  sublimate,  carbolic  acid  or 
creolin  solution  and  finally  rinsed  with  50  per  cent,  alcohol  or  soap 
spirit.  Care  is  also  taken  to  keep  aseptic  the  entire  operating 
room,  the  operation  table,  the  clothing  of  the  patient,  operators, 
assistants  and  attendants,  all  of  the  utensils  used  and  the  area 
surrounding  the  wound  (field  of  operation).  Mull  masks  for  the 
mouth  and  nose  of  the  operator  are  even  used. 

The  aseptic  treatment  of  wounds  was  regarded  as  an  important 
advance  in  human  surgery  because  it  left  the  healing  of  the  wound 
to  the  natural  protective  forces  of  the  tissues  (leucocytes,  blood- 
serum)  and  only  guarded  against  external  disturbances.  More 
recently,  after  Henle  and  others  had  shown  that,  contrary  to 
Schimmelbusch,  local  disinfection  of  wounds  within  the  first  hours 
is  very  effective,  and  after  it  had  been  proven  by  statistics  that  the 
results  of  the  aseptic  method  were  in  no  way  more  favorable  than 
the  antiseptic,  numerous  surgeons  changed  from  the  purely  aseptic 
method  to  antisepsis  (disinfection  of  the  skin  with  tincture  of 


172         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

iodine).  Moreover,  disinfection  of  the  hands  was  difficult  and 
uncertain  and  the  introduction  of  sterilized  operating  gloves  did 
not  improve  conditions. 

The  aseptic  method  is  not  very  well  suited  to  veterinary  sur- 
gery. To  this  I  have  already  directed  attention  in  another  place 
(General  Surgery).  In  veterinary  practice,  old  infected  wounds 
are  usually  met  with  and  for  these  thorough  antisepsis  is  necessary 
rather  than  asepsis.  For  fresh  operation  wounds  in  the  domestic 
animals  the  aseptic  method  is  only  exceptionally  applicable,  as  for 
example  in  a  clinic;  and  even  in  well-equipped  veterinary  hospitals 
the  greatest  difficulties  are  encountered  in  maintaining  asepsis, 
especially  in  horses,  as  a  dressing  can  be  applied  only  in  a  very 
limited  number  of  cases  and  infection  of  the  wound  during  the 
operation  frequently  cannot  be  avoided  even  with  the  greatest 
care.  Moreover,  in  addition  to  the  contact  infection,  the  air  in- 
fection (dust,  hair)  is  of  great  import,  and  against  this  asepsis 
has  proven  powerless.  For  these  reasons,  antisepsis  is  to  be 
preferred  in  veterinary  practice  to  asepsis  as  the  more  certain 
method. 

Colyseptics  and  Antiseptics. — A  pathogenic  or  putrefactive 
microorganism  can  be  made  harmless  in  two  ways.  Its  vital 
activity  can  be  destroyed  or  its  development  can  be  prevented. 
In  the  first  instance  the  action  is  antiseptic ;  in  the  latter,  colyseptic. 
Drugs  with  antiseptic  properties  are  naturally  more  valuable  than 
those  which  have  only  a  colyseptic  action.  Therefore,  a  strong 
antiseptic  action  is  the  first  essential  in  a  good  disinfectant;  it 
must  not  only  prevent  the  development  and  multiplication  of 
pathogenic  bacteria  but  must  destroy  their  vitality.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  antiseptics  exert  only  a  colyseptic  action  when  sufficiently 
diluted.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  several  disinfectants  which 
are  only  colyseptic  in  the  strongest  concentration  and  have  no 
antiseptic  action  or  only  a  very  weak  one. 

The  division  of  the  disinfectants  into  antiseptics  and  coly- 
septics is  only  possible  upon  the  basis  of  bacteriological  experi- 
ments. In  order  to  test  the  colyseptic  properties  of  a  substance, 
bacteria  capable  of  development  are  placed  upon  a  suitable  culture 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  173 

media  which  has  been  previously  impregnated  with  the  drug  under 
examination.  If  the  bacteria  fail  to  develop  characteristic  col- 
onies upon  the  media  (gelatin,  bouillon,  etc.),  then  it  is  to  be 
assumed  that  the  presence  of  the  drug  has  prevented  the  growth  of 
the  organisms.  However,  it  cannot  be  concluded  from  the  experi- 
ment that  the  vitality  of  the  organisms  is  destroyed.  This  fact  is 
only  established  when  a  pathogenic  organism  which  has  been  thus 
treated  is  inoculated  into  a  suitable  experimental  animal  and  no 
infection  is  produced.  Only  in  the  latter  case  can  antiseptic  proper- 
ties be  attributed  to  the  drug.  Non-pathogenic  bacteria  are 
tested  by  permitting  them  to  dry  upon  silk  threads  and  placing 
the  threads  in  a  solution  of  the  substance  under  test.  After  a 
time  the  threads  are  removed  from  the  solution,  washed  in  water, 
and  placed  upon  suitable  culture  media.  If  the  substance  being 
tested  actually  possesses  antiseptic  properties  no  growth  will  occur. 
Relative  Rank  of  the  Disinfectants. — In  the  beginning,  the 
individual  disinfectants  were  tested  bacteriologically  in  an  en- 
deavor to  discover  a  drug  which  would  destroy  all  known  bacteria 
when  greatly  diluted,  but  it  was  found  that  there  is  no  such  uni- 
versal disinfectant.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  observed  that  specific 
antiseptics  are  required  to  destroy  individual  species  of  bacteria, 
just  as  certain  antipyretics  are  required  for  the  different  types  of 
fever.  For  instance,  corrosive  sublimate  is  the  most  powerful 
disinfectant  for  the  virus  of  anthrax,  but  has  only  a  very  weak 
action  on  tubercle  bacilli  and  is  much  less  effective  than  other 
drugs  (creolin,  lysol,  alcohol,  formaldehyde)  for  superficial  dis- 
infection of  the  skin.  Carbolic  acid  is  relatively  ineffective  against 
the  tetanus  bacillus,  rabies  virus,  anthrax  spores  and  tubercle 
bacilH.  Therefore,  in  disinfection  the  different  drugs  and  bac- 
teria must  to  a  certain  extent  be  considered  individually.  In  a 
general  way,  it  can  only  be  said  that  in  the  case  of  those  micro- 
organisms which  exist  in  two  different  forms,  namely,  the  con- 
tinuous (spore)  and  vegetative  (bacillus),  the  spores  require  much 
more  powerful  antiseptics  than  the  bacilli.  Here,  again,  the 
individual  species  of  spores  and  bacilli  show  considerable  differ- 
ences in  their  ability  to  resist  the  action  of  the  same  drug.    It  is, 


174         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

therefore,  difficult  to  make  up  a  comparative  table  of  the  individual 
drugs.  It  can  only  be  stated  in  a  very  general  way  that  the  strong- 
est disinfectants,  which  also  destroy  spores,  are  corrosive  sublimate 
and  the  silver  salts  (silver  nitrate);  chlorine,  bromine  and  iodine; 
creolin,  lysol  and  some  of  the  other  newer  cresol  preparations; 
formaldehyde  and  wood  tar.  Contrasting  with  these  are  the 
weaker  antiseptics,  which  kill  only  the  spore-free  bacteria:  coal 
tar,  carbolic  acid,  salicylic  acid,  aniline  dyes,  boric  acid,  calcium, 
lyes  and  acids.  Iron  sulphate  and  sulphuric  acid,  formerly  highly 
valued  as  antiseptics,  possess  almost  no  antiseptic  properties. 
The  aforementioned  disinfectants  are  arranged  in  the  following 
table  according  to  the  dilutions  in  which  they  are  efficient,  the 
dilutions  given  being  the  average  of  the  different  bacteriological 
observations; 


Spore-free  material. 

Spore- 
containing 

Coly  septic 

Antiseptic 

action. 

action. 

material. 

Corrosive  sublimate 

1 

:  1,000,000 

1  :  50,000 

1  :1000 

Silver  nitrate 

1 

:  75,000 

1  :5000 

? 

Halogens  (chlorine,  bromine,  iodine) 

Cresols  (creolin,  lysol) 

1 

:  5000-25,000 

1  :5000 

1  :50 

Formaldehyde 

Salicyhc  acid 

Carbolic  acid 

1 

:  1000 

1  :  100 

0 

Boric  acid 

Calcium 

Iron  sulphate 

1 

:50 

1  :3 

0 

Sulphuric  acid 

0 

0 

0 

Resistance  of  the  Individual  Infectious  Agents. — This  is  very 
variable.  Many  infectious  agents  are  very  readily  destroyed  by 
disinfectants.  As  a  consequence,  for  many  of  the  infectious  diseases 
the  employment  of  the  weaker  disinfectants  (lime,  soap,  tar)  is 
sufficient.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  many  of  the  patho- 
genic organisms  do  not  form  spores.  The  infectious  agents  which 
are  easily  destroyed  are  the  anthrax  bacilli,  the  bacilli  of  swine 
erysipelas,  the  bacteria  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  of  cattle,  the 
bacteria  of  fowl  cholera,  and  the  virus  of  foot-and-mouth  disease, 
vesicular  exanthema,  pox  and  rinderpest.     On  the  other  hand, 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  176 

anthrax  spores,  tubercle  bacilli,  tetanus  spores,  black  leg  spores, 
and  the  contagion  of  lung  plague  and  rabies  are  destroyed  with 
difficulty.  For  the  purposes  of  practical  disinfection,  the  more 
important  infectious  diseases  can  therefore  be  classified  in  two 
groups,  the  one  including  those  for  which  a  mild  disinfectant  is 
sufficient  and  the  other  those  which  require  a  strong  disinfectant. 
The  following  groups  are  arranged  on  this  basis: 

A.  Requiring  strong  disinfectants : 

Anthrax  spores. 
Tetanus  spores. 
Tubercle  bacilli. 
Black  leg  spores 
Lung  plague  virus. 
Rabies  virus. 

B.  Requiring  mild  disinfectants: 

Anthrax  bacilli. 

Swine  erysipelas  bacilli. 

Glanders  bacilli. 

Bacteria  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease  virus. 

Pox  and  rinderpest  virus. 
Staphylococci  and  streptococci  occupy  a  position  between 
these  two  classes.  They  are  much  easier  to  destroy  than  spores 
and  spore-containing  bacilli,  but  are  considerably  more  resistant 
to  disinfectants  than  the  spore-free  organisms.  For  these  reasons, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  the  more  powerful  disinfectants  (corrosive 
sublimate,  creolin,  tincture  of  iodine)  in  the  antiseptic  treatment 
of  wounds  in  order  to  destroy  the  pus  cocci  (staphylococcus 
pyogenes,  streptococcus  pyogenes). 

Method  of  Action  of  the  Disinfectants. — It  has  already  been 
stated  that  infectious  material  may  be  rendered  ineffective  either 
through  destruction  of  its  vitality  or  through  inhibition  of  its 
development.  In  either  case  the  method  of  action  may  be  very 
different.  In  general,  disinfection  is  the  result  of  the  following 
processes : 

1.  By  coagulating  the  bacterial  albumins  (mycoproteins)  the 


176        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

metallic  salts,  particularly  corrosive  sublimate  and  silver  nitrate, 
act  as  antiseptics  (formation  of  a  precipitate  of  metallic  albumi- 
nate).   Formaldehyde  acts  in  the  same  manner. 

2.  A  specific  toxic  action,  narcotic  to  a  certain  extent,  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  benzol  derivatives,  especially  the  cresols  (creohn, 
lysol,  tar,  creosote)  and  carbolic  acid. 

3.  By  oxidation,  potassium  permanganate  (KMn04),  potassium 
chlorate  (KCIO3),  hydrogen  peroxide  (H2O2),  and  other  drugs  act 
as  disinfectants. 

4.  Reduction  (withdrawal  of  hydrogen).  Chlorine  and  many 
chlorine  compounds  operate  by  reduction.  Corrosive  sublimate, 
zinc  chloride  and  iron  chloride,  for  example,  act  in  part  in  this  way. 
The  chlorine  withdraws  hydrogen  from  the  bacteria,  thus  breaking 
up  and  decomposing  the  albumin  molecules,  while  the  chlorine 
and  hydrogen  combine  to  form  hydrochloric  acid;  the  chlorine 
also  decomposes  the  water,  setting  free  nascent  oxygen,  which 
oxidizes  the  bacteria. 

5.  Through  a  change  of  the  reaction,  most  antiseptics  act  as 
disinfectants,  especially  the  acids  and  acid  chlorides  (also  the 
acid-reacting  corrosive  sublimate).  Bacteria  grow  upon  a  weakly 
alkaline  or  neutral  culture  media  and  merely  a  change  of  reaction 
is  sufficient  to  retard  their  development.  Growth  is  also  effected 
by  a  considerable  increase  of  the  alkalinity  (alkahes). 

6.  By  dissolving  the  cell  membrane,  alkalies,  organic  acids 
(vinegar)  and  soaps  operate  as  disinfectants. 

7.  Precipitation.  Corrosive  sublimate  and  the  other  metallic 
salts  (iron  sulphate)  precipitate  the  bacteria  from  the  fluids  in 
which  they  are  suspended. 

8.  Absorption.  Freshly  heated  charcoal  absorbs  gases  and 
acts  as  an  antiseptic  and  deodorizer. 

9.  Withdrawal  of  water.  Concentrated  salt  solutions  (e.g., 
sodium  chloride)  and  glycerin  act  in  this  way.  Finally,  a  purely 
mechanical  fixation  is  produced  by  certain  substances  like  oil 
paints,  tar  and  pastes. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing,  the  method  of  action  of 
a  disinfectant  may  often  be  multiple.     Corrosive  sublimate,  for 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  177 

example,  operates  by  coagulating  albumin,  by  its  acid  reaction, 
by  precipitation  and  by  the  action  of  its  chlorine. 

Disinfectants  and  the  Infected  Objects. — The  results  obtained 
by  experiments  in  bacteriological  laboratories  cannot  be  applied 
to  disinfection  in  practice  without  further  consideration  (compare 
iodoform!).  Between  the  destruction  of  bacteria  in  artificial 
cultures  and  the  disinfection  of  a  living  body,  a  wound,  a  stable 
or  a  manure  pit  there  frequently  exist  very  considerable  differ- 
ences. Therefore,  in  practice  it  is  well  to  consider  the  inter-action 
between  the  disinfectant  and  the  object  to  be  disinfected;  both, 
the  disinfectant  as  well  as  the  object,  may  under  certain  circum- 
stances suffer  changes  in  consequence  of  opposing  influences 
which  will  entirely  defeat  the  purposes  of  the  disinfection. 

For  the  living  body,  the  first  point  to  be  determined  is  whether 
the  disinfectant  is  poisonous  or  non-poisonous.  Strictly  speaking, 
there  is  no  disinfectant  which  is  strongly  antiseptic  and  at  the 
same  time  absolutely  non-toxic  for  the  animal  body.  It  is  rather 
the  rule  that  the  toxicity  of  a  disinfectant  increases  with  the 
strength  of  its  antiseptic  power,  as  is  observed  especially  in  con- 
nection with  corrosive  subUmate.  But  if  the  term  poisonous  is 
used  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and  is  to  be  understood  to  mean  harm- 
ful results  from  small  quantities  of  the  disinfectant,  or  from  weak 
dilutions  used  in  the  usual  way  for  practical  disinfection,  then  it 
can  be  said  that  there  are  disinfectants  which  are  not  poisonous. 
As  examples,  boric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  aluminum  acetate  and 
creoHn  may  be  mentioned.  In  regard  to  the  former  denials  of 
the  non-toxicity  of  the  latter  drug,  the  investigations  of  von 
Behring  and  experiences  in  practice  agree  that  creolin  may  be 
employed  as  a  disinfectant  without  any  danger  of  poisoning.  As 
poisonous  antiseptics  may  be  mentioned  carbolic  acid,  creosote, 
the  free  cresols,  corrosive  sublimate,  formaldehyde,  chlorine, 
bromine  and  iodine.  Corrosive  sublimate  is  the  most  poisonous; 
it  is  forty  times  as  poisonous  as  carbolic  acid.  According  to  von 
Behring,  the  toxicity  of  a  disinfectant  for  the  animal  body  may  be 
calculated  from  the  action  of  the  drug  upon  anthrax  bacilU  sus- 
pended in  blood-serum;  most  disinfectants  are  five  to  seven  times 

12 


178        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

more  poisonous  for  the  animal  organism  than  for  anthrax  bacilli. 
Poisoning  from  antiseptics  results  from  their  internal,  subcutaneous 
and  epidermatic  use,  especially  from  the  use  of  corrosive  sublimate 
to  disinfect  the  uterus  of  the  cow  and  carbolic  acid  to  disinfect 
wounds  of  cats.  Disinfection  with  chlorine  and  bromine  is  very 
dangerous  for  man  and  animals. 

The  blood  exerts  a  very  strong  modifying  influence  upon  the 
disinfectant  action  of  many  antiseptics.  Corrosive  sublimate,  for 
example,  destroys  anthrax  bacilli  in  blood  only  in  a  concentration 
of  1  :  2000  and  after  prolonged  action,  while  it  destroys  the  same 
organism  in  water  immediately  and  in  a  dilution  of  1  :  50,000. 
The  cause  of  this  surprising  difference  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  albumin  in  solution  in  the  blood  is  precipitated  by  the 
sublimate  in  the  form  of  albuminate  of  mercury,  which  retards 
the  penetration  of  the  sublimate  into  the  deeper  layers  of  the  blood. 
Similar  observations  have  been  made  in  connection  with  silver 
nitrate,  carbolic  acid,  creolin  and  other  drugs.  While  creolin  is 
effective  against  anthrax  bacilli  in  bouillon  in  a  dilution  of  1  :  10,- 
000,  a  concentration  of  1  :  200  is  required  to  destroy  anthrax 
bacilli  in  blood-serum.  Since  in  the  disinfection  of  wounds  one 
has  to  do  in  part  with  blood  disinfection,  these  relations  should 
be  given  consideration  in  the  antiseptic  treatment  of  wounds  and 
blood  should  be  as  completely  removed  from  the  wound  as 
possible. 

In  using  disinfectants  upon  the  skin  or  upon  wounds,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  many  of  them  are  caustic  in  strong  concen- 
tration (sublimate,  silver  nitrate,  carbolic  acid)  and  are  always 
irritant,  even  in  weak  solution  (sublimate,  formaldehyde).  This 
consideration  led  to  the  substitution  of  asepsis  for  antisepsis  in 
human  medicine  (see  p.  170).  Moreover,  only  a  superficial  dis- 
infection can  be  obtained,  since  the  disinfectants  as  a  rule  do  not 
operate  deeply  (alcohol  is  an  exception).  A  superior  disinfectant 
for  superficial  disinfection  of  the  animal  body  and  one  which  is 
to  be  preferred  to  corrosive  sublimate  as  well  as  carboHc  acid  is, 
according  to  von  Behring,  the  English  creolin.  This  is  also  true 
of  formaldehyde  and  dilute  alcohol  (disinfection  of  the  hands). 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  179 

Iodoform  undergoes  a  peculiar  decomposition  when  it  comes  in 
contact  with  pus;  iodine  is  set  free,  and  this  free  iodine  is  the  cause 
of  the  antiseptic  action  of  iodoform. 

In  the  disinfection  of  stables,  many  forms  of  decomposition 
occur.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  corrosive  sublimate  when 
it  comes  in  contact  with  organic  or  albuminous  substances,  excre- 
ment, urine,  and  water.  The  disinfection  of  dried  infectious 
material  is  particularly  difficult;  a  detailed  discussion  of  this 
point  will  be  found  in  a  succeeding  section.  The  effective  dis- 
infection of  infected  dung  and  liquid  manure  is  very  difficult 
because  the  organic  constituents  and'  gases  (H2S,  NH3)  decom- 
pose some  antiseptics;  e.g.,  corrosive  sublimate.  Other  disinfec- 
tants quickly  lose  their  effect  because  they  form  ineffective  com- 
binations (change  of  caustic  lime  to  acid  phosphates,  silver  nitrate 
to  silver  chloride,  salicylic  acid  to  sodium  salicylate). 

Continuance  of  the  Action  of  Disinfectants. — The  rapidity  of 
its  disinfectant  action  is  of  essential  importance  in  considering 
the  value  of  any  antiseptic.  The  shorter  the  action,  the  stronger 
usually  must  be  the  concentration.  It  is  desirable  in  practice  to 
continue  the  action  of  a  quickly  acting  disinfectant  as  long  as 
possible  upon  the  object  to  be  disinfected.  Antiseptic  irrigations 
of  old  wounds  especially  must  be  continued  for  a  long  time  (for 
yi  hour  and  over).  Disinfection  of  stables  with  autan  must 
continue  seven  hours.  In  disinfecting  with  chlorine  and  bromine 
a  24-hour  action  is  necessary. 

In  general,  a  good  disinfectant  should  destroy  the  bacteria 
acted  upon  within  a  few  minutes.  This  standard  cannot  be 
complied  with  absolutely,  particularly  not  in  connection  with  the 
spore-containing  bacteria,  which  always  require  a  much  longer 
time  for  destruction  than  the  spore-free  organisms.  While  carbolic 
acid,  creolin,  formaldehyde  and  corrosive  sublimate  in  suitable 
concentrations  destroy  anthrax  bacilli  at  once  or  at  most  within 
a  few  minutes,  they  show  the  following  relations  to  anthrax  spores: 

Formaldehyde  (2  per  cent.)  kills  anthrax  spores  after  7  hours. 

Corrosive  sublimate  (17  per  cent.)  kills  anthrax  spores  after 
1  day. 


180         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Creolin  (3  per  cent.)  kills  anthrax  spores  after  2  days. 

Carbolic  acid  (5  per  cent.),  anthrax  spores  were  not  killed  after 
20  days. 

Influence  of  Temperature. — The  disinfectant  power  of  a  drug 
can  be  considerably  increased  by  the  simultaneous  operation  of 
high  degrees  of  temperature.  For  this  reason,  it  is  recommended 
that  disinfectant  fluids  be  employed  as  warm  as  possible.  This 
applies  particularly  to  the  disinfection  of  the  hands  (warm  water 
and  soap  and  sublimate  solution).  Anthrax  bacilli  are  destroyed 
at  3°  C.  by  a  1 :  25,000  solution  of  sublimate,  while  at  36°  C. 
they  are  destroyed  by  a  four  times  weaker  dilution,  1 :  100,000. 
Anthrax  spores,  which  are  not  destroyed  with  certainty  after  20 
days  by  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, are  killed  after  3  hours'  exposure  to  the  carbolic  acid  solu- 
tion at  37°  C.  Live  steam  kills  them  within  the  same  period,  and 
formalin  vapor  (1-2  per  cent.)  at  70°  C.  after  5  minutes.  Soda  is 
entirely  ineffective  against  these  organisms  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature, but  a  IJ^  per  cent,  solution  at  higher  temperatures  will 
destroy  them  as  follows: 

At  80-83°  C.  after  10  minutes. 

At  77°  C.  after  15  minutes. 

At  75°  C.  after  20  minutes. 

At  70°  C.  after  30-60  minutes  (von  Behring). 

Influence  of  Concentration. — The  stronger  the  concentration 
the  more  effective  in  general  is  the  disinfectant  action  of  the  anti- 
septic. An  exception  to  this  rule  is  creolin,  which  is  most  efficient 
in  concentrations  which  favor  the  formation  of  a  complete  emul- 
sion, especially  2-3  :  100;  10  to  20  per  cent,  solutions  are  not  rela- 
tively as  efficient  because  the  greater  part  of  the  creolin  is  not 
emulsified  and  is  therefore  not  entirely  effective.  The  influence  of 
concentration  upon  the  action  of  an  antiseptic  is  shown  by  the 
following  figures: 

Corrosive  sublimate  1  :  100  kills  anthrax  spores  after  80 
minutes. 

Corrosive  sublimate  1  :  200  kills  anthrax  spores  after  2  hours. 

Corrosive  sublimate  1  :  400  kills  anthrax  spores  after  4  hours. 


DISINFECTANTS.     ANTISEPTICS  181 

Corrosive  sublimate  1  :  1000  kills  anthrax  spores  after  24  hours 
(von  Behring). 

Influence  of  the  Form  of  the  Disinfectant. — The  different 
conditions  of  aggregation  exert  a  definite  influence  upon  the  degree 
of  antiseptic  action.  SoHd,  insoluble  bodies  possess  no  disinfec- 
tant action  because  they  cannot  penetrate  the  mass  to  be  dis- 
infected. Disinfectants  in  solution  in  water  are  most  effective. 
Alcoholic  solutions  are  also  very  effective  when  the  solvent  is 
alcohol  diluted  with  water.  On  the  other  hand,  solutions  in  oil 
are  not  effective,  as  was  demonstrated  by  Koch  in  connection 
with  carbolized  oil.  Disinfectants  in  the  gaseous  form  are  very 
unreliable,  except  formaldehyde.  Koch  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
the  inefficiency  of  sulphurous  acid,  which  was  formerly  so  highly  val- 
ued as  a  disinfectant.  The  practical  value  of  chlorine  and  bromine 
in  the  gaseous  form  has  been  placed  in  great  doubt  by  von  Behring. 
Even  calcium  chloride  is  disinfectant  in  slight  degree  in  the  gaseous 
form  only  when  the  object  to  be  disinfected  is  moist,  when  the  bac- 
teria are  entirely  superficial  and  when  13^  per  cent,  by  volume  of 
free  chlorine  is  developed  in  the  area  to  be  disinfected.  Many  other 
superior  antiseptics  are  not  suitable  for  practical  use  because  they 
are  not  soluble  in  water.  These  include,  first  of  all,  the  ethereal  oils, 
which  in  alcoholic  solutions  possess  a  very  high  disinfectant  action. 
The  behavior  of  iodoform,  which  is  in  powder  form,  is  pecuHar ;  it  be- 
comes antiseptic  only  after  it  is  decomposed  and  iodine  is  set  free. 

Time  of  Disinfection. — In  many  cases  it  is  very  important 
that  the  disinfection  be  undertaken  within  a  certain  time.  This 
applies  especially  to  the  disinfection  of  wounds.  Fresh  wounds 
are  much  easier  disinfected  than  old,  suppurating  wounds.  The 
prompt  use  of  a  suitable  disinfectant  (tannoform)  on  fresh  wounds 
will  prevent  suppuration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  disinfection  of 
old  wounds  is  difficult  and  frequently  impossible  on  account  of 
the  bacteria  having  penetrated  deeply  into  the  tissues.  In  an- 
thrax, tetanus  and  rabies,  disinfection  should  be  undertaken  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment  after  the  diagnosis  is  made,  especially 
in  anthrax,  in  order  to  prevent  the  easily  destroyed  bacilli  from 
developing  the  highly  resistant  spores. 


182         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Preliminary  Preparation. — A  thorough  cleaning  is  an  indis- 
pensable preliminary  preparation  for  disinfection.  This  will 
make  the  infectious  material  more  accessible  to  the  antiseptic, 
so  that  a  relatively  simple  and  mild  disinfectant  will  be  sufficient, 
or  it  may  entirely  remove  the  infection.  Water  and  soap  alone 
are  often  sufficient  for  disinfection.  The  aseptic  treatment  of 
wounds  was  based  entirely  upon  a  careful  cleansing  of  the  wound, 
the  instruments  and  the  hands,  and  the  exclusion  of  infection. 
Infected  rooms,  walls  and  other  objects  may  be  disinfected  by 
thorough  washing  with  warm  water  and  soap.  A  preliminary 
disinfection  must,  however,  precede  the  cleaning  when  disease- 
producing  organisms  may  be  scattered  by  the  cleaning,  or  when 
the  dirt  cannot  be  collected  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exclude  the 
possibility  of  spreading  the  infection;  in  addition,  when  the  clean- 
ing is  done  without  a  preliminary  disinfection  those  doing  the 
work  are  in  danger  of  infection.  In  these  exceptional  cases  the 
work  should  be  done  in  the  following  order:  first,  preliminary 
disinfection;  second,  cleanmg;  third,  thorough  final  disinfection. 

Cost  of  Disinfection. — In  every  disinfection  the  question  of 
cost  is  an  important  consideration.  In  the  interest  of  agriculture, 
the  veterinarian  is  obliged  to  adopt  the  cheapest  possible  method 
of  disinfection.  For  instance,  the  free  use  of  iodoform,  ichthargon, 
glutol  or  protargol  by  the  veterinarian  in  the  treatment  of  wounds 
must  be  regarded  as  a  luxury.  The  use  of  silver  nitrate  as  a  dis- 
infectant in  outbreaks  of  disease  is  forbidden  by  its  high  cost. 
Carbolic  acid  must  also  be  regarded  as  a  relatively  expensive 
disinfectant.  A  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  is  ten  times 
as  costly  as  the  much  more  powerful  1  per  cent,  corrosive  subfimate 
solution  and  3  per  cent,  creolin  solution.  Properly  carried  out, 
chlorine  and  bromine  disinfection  is  very  expensive.  The  cheap- 
est disinfectants,  and  therefore  the  easiest  to  obtain,  are  lime, 
soda,  potassium,  soap  and  tar.  Other  cheap  disinfectants  are 
corrosive  sublimate,  creolin,  lysol,  solveol,  solutol,  bacillol  and 
cresol-sulphuric  acid.  In  the  following  table  is  given  the  present 
average  wholesale  price  per  pound  of  the  most  frequently  used 
antiseptics  or  disinfectants: 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  183 

Burnt  lime per  lb.  $0.08 

Creolin per  lb.  .65 

Lysol per  lb.  .67 

Carbolic  acid per  lb.  .15 

Corrosive  sublimate per  lb.  .69 

Tannoform per  oz  .35 

Iodoform per  lb.  4.55 

Protargol per  oz.  1.25 

Aristol per  oz.  1.80 

Ichthargon per  oz.  3.00 

Properties  of  Disinfectants. — The  results  of  disinfection  will  depend  upon 
other  factors  of  importance.  These  include  the  quahty  and  purity  of  the 
disinfectants.  When  calcium  chloride  is  stored  its  chlorine  content  decreases 
and  it  finally  becomes  ineffective.  Bimit  lime,  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
is  gradually  changed  to  the  ineffective  calcium  carbonate.  Calcium  chloride 
and  burnt  lime  must  therefore  be  used  in  as  fresh  condition  as  possible.  In 
regard  to  creolin,  Henle  and  von  Behring  have  demonstrated  that  the  German 
creolin,  in  contrast  with  the  English  creolin,  possesses  no  disinfection  action 
worth  mentioning.  Finally,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  carry  out  every 
disinfection  with  as  little  inconvenience  as  possible,  avoiding  all  unnecessary 
disturbance  of  agricultural  operations. 

2.  DISINFECTION  FOR  INFECTIOUS  ANIMAL  DISEASES 

General. — Disinfection  for  the  different  infectious  diseases  of 
animals  is  regulated  by  the  German  veterinary  sanitary  law  of 
June  26,  1909  (Supplement  A  to  the  instructions  of  the  federal 
council  of  December  25,  1911),  the  law  of  February  25,  1876, 
concerning  the  spread  of  infectious  materials  by  the  transporta- 
tion of  cattle  over  railroads,  and  the  regulations  of  the  federal 
council  based  on  this  law  and  issued  June  20,  1886,  with  the 
modification  of  July  26,  1899  (the  disinfection  with  5  per  cent, 
carbolic  acid  solution  is  not  only  required,  as  formerly,  for  anthrax, 
rinderpest  and  foot-and-mouth  disease,  but  also  for  glanders, 
swine  plague  and  hog  cholera) ;  also  by  the  more  recent  regulations 
with  reference  to  fowl  cholera  (February  2  and  July  4, 1899)  and  the 
announcement  of  the  federal  council  of  July  16,  1904  (substitution 
of  a  3  per  cent,  solution  of  the  cresol-sulphuric  acid  mixture  for  the 


184        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

5  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution),  by  the  rinderpest  law  (April  7, 
1869),  and  by  the  military-veterinary  instructions  for  the  service 
horses  of  the  army.  These  laws  and  regulations  contain  definite 
instructions  concerning  cleaning  and  disinfectant  agents  (water, 
soap  water,  soda  lye,  freshly-slaked  lime,  calcium  chloride,  solu- 
tions of  carbolic  acid  and  cresol,  cresol-sulphuric  acid  mixture, 
corrosive  sublimate,  formaldehyde,  fire),  methods  of  cleaning  and 
disinfecting,  and  the  procedure  to  be  followed  in  the  different 
infections  (anthrax,  rabies,  glanders,  foot-and-mouth  disease, 
lung  plague,  sheep-pox,  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  hog  cholera, 
tuberculosis,  mange,  fowl  cholera,  fowl  pest  and  rinderpest). 

I.  SUPPLEMENT  A  TO  THE  INSTRUCTIONS  OF  THE  FEDERAL 

COUNCIL,   DECEMBER  25,    1911    (DISINFECTION   IN 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES) 

Regulations  for  Disinfection  in  Infectious  Diseases 

I.  General 

§  1.  Cleaning  and  disinfection  is  to  be  done  according  to  these  regulations 
under  the  observation  and  direction  of  the  official  veterinarian  and  under 
police  supervision. 

§  2.  The  disinfection  process  includes  cleaning  and  disinfection.  The 
cleaning  must  regularly  precede  the  disinfection;  this  does  not  forbid  a  pre- 
liminary disinfection  before  beginning  the  cleaning  (see  §5,  No.  10;  §6, 
subdivision  2). 

II.  Cleaning 

§  3.  Persons  must  wash  with  warm  water  and  soap  the  hands  and  other 
parts  of  the  body  which  may  have  been  soiled;  in  case  of  necessity  these  parts 
must  also  be  subjected  to  a  preliminary  disinfection  (§  5,  No.  10).  The  clothing 
and  foot-gear,  when  not  changed,  are  to  be  brushed  with  soap  and  water  to 
remove  attached  dirt. 

§  4.  Animals  are  to  have  the  surface  of  the  body,  especially  the  hoofs  and 
claws,  cleaned  of  attached  dirt  by  careful  washing  or  some  other  suitable 
process.    When  necessary  the  hoofs  and  claws  are  to  be  trimmed  out. 

§  5.  Stables  and  other  places  of  accommodation  are  to  be  treated  as 
follows: 

1.  Manure  and  other  gross  dirt,  straw,  feed  residue,  straw  packing,  and 
similar  substances  are  to  be  removed  and  disposed  of  according  to  Nos.  9 
and  10.    Only  the  upper  layer  need  be  removed  from  the  manure  piles  in 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  185 

sheep  and  cattle  stables  when  in  the  judgment  of  the  official  veterinarian  this 
ia  sufficient  and  when  the  veterinary  sanitary  regulations  will  permit. 

2.  Wood  utensils,  racks  and  mangers  and  board  linings  are  to  be  taken 
out  as  far  as  is  necessary.  Wood-work  with  a  torn  or  sphntered  surface  must 
be  removed  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  obtain  a  smooth  surface.  The  pieces  of 
wood  removed  and  all  decaying  or  rotten  wood,  or  wood  that  is  otherwise 
unsuitable  for  use,  are  to  be  burned. 

3.  From  clay  walls  a  layer  of  sufficient  depth  is  to  be  removed.  Damaged 
or  loose  parts  of  the  plaster  or  rough-cast  on  the  walls  are  to  be  removed  and 
disposed  of  in  the  same  manner  as  the  manure. 

4.  Loose  paving  and  planks  in  the  floor  are  to  be  removed.  The  earth 
under  the  flooring  which  is  wet  with  excretions  must  be  dug  out,  and  the 
material  removed  is  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  same  manner  as  the  manure. 
Stone  and  sound  wood-work  in  which  the  moisture  has  not  penetrated  deeply 
can  be  again  used  after  the  damaged  parts  have  been  removed. 

5.  In  tightly  joined  (impervious)  floors,  in  case  of  necessity,  the  damaged 
places  in  the  binding  material  or  in  the  material  itself,  or  cracks  in  the  latter, 
can  be  scraped  out  and  the  spaces,  after  thorough  cleaning  and  disinfection, 
can  be  filled  in  with  new  material.  Similar  conditions  in  the  walls,  pillars, 
stall  partitions,  pits,  troughs,  gutters  and  canals  may  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner. 

6.  Lime  or  earth  floors  (puddled  clay  and  the  like)  should  have  the  upper 
layer  removed  and  the  moist  places  dug  out.  The  part  removed  is  to  be 
treated  like  the  manure. 

7.  Earth  and  sand  floors,  in  so  far  as  they  are  wet  with  excretions,  are  to 
be  removed  to  the  depth  of  at  least  4  inches. 

8.  The  ceiling,  walls,  fittings  (mangers,  troughs,  racks,  posts,  pillars, 
stalls,  doors,  door  posts,  windows,  etc.),  floor,  manure  gutters,  canals,  troughs 
and  pits  are  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  scouring  with  hot  soda  solution  (a 
solution  of  at  least  8  pounds  of  washing  soda  to  100  quarts  of  hot  water)  or 
hot  soap  solution  (8  pounds  of  soft  soap  dissolved  in  100  quarts  of  hot  water). 
The  cleaning  is  only  to  be  regarded  as  complete  when  all  excretions  from  dis- 
eased or  suspected  animals  and  all  dirt  have  been  removed  and  everything 
has  an  entirely  clean  appearance.  When  necessary,  scouring  sand  may  be 
used  with  the  hot  soda  or  soap  solution.  The  cleaning  must  include  all  parts 
of  the  stable  and  other  places  where  animals  are  kept.  Special  attention  is 
to  be  given  to  depressions  in  the  floor,  comers,  niches,  joints,  cracks,  scratches, 
etc.  In  stables  and  other  compartments,  the  ceilings  are  cleaned  first,  as 
a  rule,  then  the  walls  and  interior  fittings  and  lastly  the  floors,  manure 
gutters,  etc. 

When  the  official  veterinarian  considers  it  unnecessary,  stable  ceilings  and 
the  upper  parts  of  the  walls  which  have  not  been  soiled  with  the  eliminations 


186        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

from  diseased  animals  need  not  be  scoured  with  the  soda  or  soap  solution,  but 
may  be  cleaned  by  thoroughly  spraying  with  hot  soda  or  soap  solution  or  with 
hot  water.  Where  hot  soda  or  soap  solution  or  hot  water  cannot  be  ob- 
tained in  suflBcient  amount,  water  under  strong  pressure  from  a  water  sup- 
ply pipe  or  from  a  fire  hose,  garden  hose  or  some  similar  arrangement  may  be 
used,  if  in  the  judgment  of  the  official  veterinarian  it  will  answer  the  purpose. 

9.  The  manure  and  other  dirt  removed  in  cleaning,  the  straw,  feed 
residue  and  other  substances  (see  Nos.  1  to  7),  blood,  stomach  and  intestinal 
contents  and  other  offal  from  slaughtered,  dead  and  diseased  or  suspected 
animals  are  to  be  collected  together  upon  the  infected  premises.  In  cases  where 
the  collection  of  the  manure  upon  the  infected  premises  is  impossible  or 
undesirable  it  may,  with  official  veterinary  approval  and  with  proper  care, 
be  collected  in  a  suitable  place  outside  of  the  infected  premises. 

The  soiled  water  from  cleaning  is  to  be  collected  in  the  manure  pit  or  in 
some  other  general  container  on  the  infected  premises. 

10.  When  the  manure  and  other  dirt,  the  straw,  feed  residue,  etc.,  removed 
in  cleaning,  and  the  dirty  fluids  from  cleaning,  cannot  be  collected  on  the 
infected  premises  or  in  another  suitable  place  without  danger  of  spreading 
the  infection,  then,  if  it  is  necessary  to  render  those  materials  harmless,  a 
preliminary  disinfection  must  precede  the  cleaning,  a  suitable  disinfection 
fluid  being  applied  (§11  and  §§  15  to  27).  In  these  cases,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  manure  and  other  dirt,  straw,  feed  residue,  dirty  water,  etc.,  are  not 
placed  even  temporarily,  before  the  final  disinfection,  in  locations  where  the 
contaminated  water  may  drain  into  other  premises,  where  the  materials 
are  accessible  to  strange  persons  or  animals,  or  where  the  fluids  can  flow  into 
springs,  water  courses  or  other  sources  of  water  supply. 

A  disinfection  is  also  to  precede  cleaning  when  there  is  danger  that  the 
persons  doing  the  cleaning  may  be  infected  without  previous  disinfection,  as 
in  anthrax  and  glanders  (§§  15,  18). 

§6.  (Subdivision  1.)  Utensils,  clothing,  and  other  objects  are  to  be 
treated  in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Combustible  articles  of  little  value  are  to  be  burned. 

2.  Wood  stable  and  driving  equipment  (feed  boxes,  buckets,  brooms, 
forks,  shovels,  etc.,  feed  carts,  wagons,  sledges,  harness  parts,  wood  shoes, 
etc.)  are  to  be  thoroughly  scoured  with  hot  soda  or  soap  solution. 

3.  Utensils  of  iron  and  other  metals  (chains,  rings,  forks,  shovels,  curry- 
combs, bits,  muzzles,  troughs,  other  feeding  and  watering  vessels  and  other 
vessels,  cages,  etc.)  are,  in  so  far  as  they  cannot  be  disinfected  by  fire  (part  III), 
to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  then  washed  with  hot  water. 

4.  Leather  and  rubber  articles  (halters,  girths,  bridles,  draught  harness, 
saddles,  straps,  cushion  covers,  leather  shoes,  dog  collars,  whips,  etc.)  are  to 
be  scrubbed  with  soap  and  water. 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  187 

5.  Articles  of  cloth  or  vegetable  fibres  (blankets,  girths,  halters,  ropes, 
cushion  covers,  pieces  of  clothing,  bed  covers,  etc.)  are  to  be  freed  from  dirt 
by  scrubbing  with  soap  and  water. 

6.  Hair,  wool,  feathers,  cushion  packing,  and  similar  substances  are  to 
be  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  and  exposed  to  the  air  for  three  days,  being  turned 
as  often  as  possible. 

(Subdivision  2.)  Under  the  conditions  described  in  §  5,  No.  10,  a  pre- 
liminary disinfection  of  utensils,  clothing  and  other  objects  is  necessary. 

§  7.  The  cleaning  of  railroad  stock  pens  and  similar  places,  slaughter 
houses,  ships  and  ferries  is  to  be  carried  out  as  directed  in  §§  5  and  6. 

§  8.  Stock-yards  are  to  be  cleaned  by  first  collecting  the  manure  dropped 
by  the  animals;  then  paved  places  are  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  brooms 
and  washed  with  water,  and  unpaved  places  are  to  be  raked  and  harrowed 
level.  Where  necessary,  the  apparatus  for  tying-up  is  to  be  washed  with 
water. 

§  9.  Roads  (alleys)  are  to  be  cleaned  in  the  same  manner  as  the  stock- 
yards. 

§  10.  Places  in  pastures  where  animals  stand  (exercise  places,  milking 
stations,  etc.)  are  to  be  cleaned  in  the  same  manner  as  the  stock  yards. 

III.  Disinfection 
1.  Disinfectants 

§  11.  (Subdivision  1.)    The  following  are  used  as  disinfectants: 

1.  Freshly  slaked  lime.  This  is  obtained  as  follows:  freshly  burned 
lime  is  placed,  without  breaking  up  or  powdering,  in  a  capacious  vessel  and 
covered  with  about  half  the  quantity  of  water;  under  these  circumstances  it 
breaks  up  into  a  powder  with  the  generation  of  considerable  heat  and  gas. 

2.  Milk  of  lime.    This  is  used  in  concentrated  and  dilute  form. 
Concentrated  milk  of  lime  is  prepared  by  adding  slowly,  with  continual 

stirring,  three  Hters  [3  quarts]  of  water  to  one  hter  [1  quart]  of  freshly  slaked 
lime. 

Dilute  milk  of  lime  is  prepared  by  adding  slowly,  with  continual  stirring, 
20  liters  [20  quarts]  of  water  to  one  hter  [1  quart]  of  freshly  slaked  lime. 

If  freshly  slaked  lime  cannot  be  obtained,  then  the  milk  of  lime  is  prepared 
by  mixing  with  each  Hter  of  slaked  lime,  as  it  is  found  in  a  Ume  pit,  3  or  20 
liters  of  water.  In  such  cases,  however,  care  must  be  taken  to  previously 
remove  the  upper  layer  of  hme,  which  is  changed  by  the  influence  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

The  milk  of  lime  is  to  be  shaken  and  stirred  before  it  is  used. 

3.  Calcium  chloride  solution.  The  calcium  chloride  should  possess  a 
pronounced  odor  of  chlorine  and  should  be  stored  in  tightly  stoppered  bottles 
and  protected  from  light.    The  solution  is  prepared  by  adding  to  each  hter 


188         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

[quaxt]  of  calcium  chloride,  slowly  and  with  continual  stirring,  3  or  20  liters 
[quarts]  of  water  (concentrated  and  dilute  calcium  chloride  solution).  The 
solution  is  in  every  case  to  be  freshly  prepared  immediately  before  using. 

4.  Dilute  cresol  water  (2.5  per  cent.^).  This  is  prepared  by  adding  to 
50  c.c.  [12  drams]  of  liquor  cresolis  compositus  sufficient  water  to  make  1 
liter  [1  quart]  and  mixing  thoroughly. 

5.  Carbolic  acid  solution  (about  3  per  cent.).  This  is  prepared  by  adding 
to  30  c.c.  [1  ounce]  of  liquefied  carboUc  acid  (phenol  liquefactum)  sufficient 
water  to  make  one  fiter  [1  quart]  of  disinfectant  fluid,  and  mixing  thoroughly. 

6.  Cresol-sulphiuic  acid  solution.  In  the  preparation  of  the  solution,  2 
parts  by  volume  of  crude  cresol  are  mixed  at  ordinary  temperature  with  1 
part  by  volume  of  crude  sulphuric  acid  and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  at  least  24  hours.  Then  for  each  30  c.c.  [ounce]  of  the  mixture  sufficient 
water  is  added  to  make  a  fiter  [quart]  of  disinfectant  fluid,  and  thoroughly 
mixed.    The  solution  must  be  used  within  3  months. 

When  the  solution  is  to  be  used  to  disinfect  places  in  the  open  (court- 
yards, stock-yards,  etc.)  in  cold  weather,  sodium  chloride  (0.5  to  1  kilogram 
[1.3  to  2.6  pounds]  to  each  10  fiters  [10  quarts])  may  be  added  to  prevent 
freezing,  being  thoroughly  mixed  in  by  stirring. 

Stables,  yards,  utensils,  etc.,  which  have  been  cleansed  with  soda  or  soap 
solution  must  be  thoroughly  washed  with  water  to  remove  the  remaining  soda 
or  soap  before  the  cresol-sulphuric  acid  solution  is  appfied. 

7.  Corrosive  sublimate  solution  (l/lO  per  cent.).  Thissolution is  prepared 
by  dissolving  in  each  liter  [quart]  of  water  1  gram  [15  grains]  of  corrosive  sub- 
Hmate  and  1  gram  [15  grains]  of  sodium  chloride  with  a  small  amount  of  red 
coloring  matter,  or  colored  tablets,  containing  1  gram  [15  grains]  of  subfimate, 
may  be  used. 

Stables,  yards,  utensils,  etc.,  which  have  been  cleansed  with  soda  or 
soap  solution  must  be  washed  with  water  to  remove  any  remaining  soda  or 
soap  before  being  disinfected  with  the  subfimate  solution.  Disinfections  in 
which  large  quantities  of  sublimate  solution  are  used,  as  the  disinfection  of 
stables,  yards,  etc.,  can  only  be  done  under  veterinary  or  pofice  supervision. 
In  disinfecting  with  sublimate  solution,  especially  in  disinfecting  cattle  stables, 
it  is  recoEMnended  that  the  disinfected  surfaces  and  objects  be  washed  after 
24  hours  with  a  H  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphurated  potassium. 

8.  Formaldehyde  solution  (about  1  per  cent.).  This  is  prepared  by  adding 
to  each  30  c.c.  [ounce]  of  commercial  formaldehyde  solution  (formalin)  sufficient 
water  to  make  1  fiter  [quart]  of  the  disinfectant  solution,  and  mixing  thoroughly. 

*  In  Bwine  plague  and  hog  cholera  a  6  per  cent,  cresol  water  is  used.  In- 
stead of  50  c.c.  [12  drams]  of  fiquor  cresolis  compositus,  120  c.c.  [4  ounces] 
are  required  for  each  fiter  [quart]. 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  189 

9.  Steam  in  apparatuses  which  have  been  examined  by  experts  when 
erected  and  at  regular  intervals  afterward  and  found  satisfactory. 

In  addition,  steam  from  a  steam  boiler  may  be  employed  for  small  vessels 
with  one  opening,  like  milk  cans,  provided  the  steam  is  used  imder  pressure 
and  is  introduced  directly  into  the  vessel.  The  interior  of  the  vessel  is  first 
exposed  to  the  live  steam  and  then  the  hoopg,  bands  and  external  wall,  the 
latter  especially  in  wood  vessels. 

10.  Boiling  in  water  or  in  3  per  cent,  soda  or  soap  solution  (see  §  5,  No.  8). 
The  fluid  must  be  put  on  the  fire  cold,  the  objects  completely  immersed  and 
the  boiUng  continued  for  at  least  a  quarter  hour.    The  vessel  must  be  covered. 

Milk  buckets,  milk  cans  and  other  milk  vessels,  instead  of  being  sub- 
jected to  the  boiling  process  described,  may  be  treated  in  the  following  manner: 

(a)  The  vessel  is  laid  in  boihng-hot  water  or  in  boiling-hot  soda  solution 

or  dilute  milk  of  lime  for  at  least  2  minutes,  all  parts  of  the  vessel 
being  covered  by  the  fluid. 

(b)  The  external  and  internal  surface  of  the  vessels,  the  handles  and 

covers  are  scrubbed  with  boiling-hot  water  or  boiling-hot  soda 
solution. 

11.  Thorough  singeing  and  heating  with  fire  or  a  suitable  flame 

12.  Burning. 

(Subdivision  2.)  The  disinfectants  described  in  Nos.  4  to  7  are  to  be  used 
as  hot  as  possible. 

(Subdivision  3.)  According  to  further  regulations  of  the  government, 
other  disinfectants  and  methods,  which  have  been  tested  in  regard  to  their 
effectiveness  and  practical  appUcation,  may  be  employed  in  addition  to  those 
mentioned  above. 

2.  Choice  of  Disinfectant  and  Method  of  Application. 

§  12.  The  choice  of  the  disinfectant  (§  11)  and  the  method  of  application 
will  depend  in  general  upon  the  resistance  of  the  infectious  agent,  the  faciUty 
with  which  it  is  carried  by  intermediate  bodies  and  the  special  conditions 
existing  in  each  case. 

§  13.  In  epizootics,  the  infectious  agent  of  which  is  easily  destroyed  and 
which  is  spread  by  the  diseased  animals,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  clean  and  then 
^  whitewash  with  dilute  milk  of  Hme  or  calcium  chloride  solution  the  ceiling, 
walls,  posts,  pillars,  stalls,  doors,  floors,  gutters  and  equipment.  Iron  parts 
are  to  be  wiped  with  dilute  cresol  water  or  carbolic  acid  solution.  Wood  and 
stone  and  glazed  tiles  are  to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

§  14.  (Subdivision  1.)  In  epizootics  of  which  the  infectious  agent  is 
difficult  to  destroy,  or  when  there  is  great  danger  that  the  disease  may  be 
further  spread  by  intermediate  objects,  the  following  process  is  to  be  followed: 

1.  The  bedding,  manure,  other  dirt,  feed  residue,  etc.,  removed  in  clean- 


190        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

ing  is  to  be  collected  together  and  either  burned,  buried,  plowed  under,  or 
rendered  harmless  by  composting  or  by  mixing  with  a  suitable  disinfectant. 

The  compost  piles  containing  the  manure,  straw,  feed  residue  and  similar 
material  should  be  placed  so  that  susceptible  animals  and  imauthorized 
persons  cannot  walk  over  them,  dirty  fluids  flow  from  them  to  other  premises, 
strange  persons  have  access  to  them,  or  washings  from  them  contaminate 
springs,  water  courses  or  other  sources  of  water  supply.  The  materials  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  of  manure  to  three  of 
straw,  moderately  moistened,  and  loosely  piled  in  large  heaps  for  three  weeks. 
After  being  piled  in  a  heap,  the  manure  is  moistened  with  water  or  urine 
(about  10  to  15  quarts  to  1  square  yard  of  manure).  The  remainder  of  the 
process  is  as  follows:  A  layer  of  non-infected  manure,  straw  or  turf  about 
10  inches  deep,  5  to  6  feet  broad  and  as  long  as  desired  is  first  placed  upon 
the  ground  and  upon  this  the  manure  to  be  disinfected  is  piled  in  a  heap  4 
feet  high  with  sloping  sides.  The  surface  of  the  heap  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  non-infected  manure,  straw,  leaves,  turf  or  other  loose  material  four  inches 
deep,  and  over  this  is  placed  a  layer  of  earth  of  the  same  thickness.  After 
remaining  three  weeks  in  this  condition  the  manure  may  be  removed  without 
danger. 

Manure  and  bedding  material  which  has  not  been  composted  and  which 
is  required  to  be  rendered  harmless  (see  §§  15  to  27)  must  be  removed 
from  infected  premises  in  tight  wagons  without  the  employment  of  sus- 
ceptible animals  from  other  premises.  In  case  of  necessity,  the  manure, 
bedding  material,  etc.,  must  be  wet  down  in  layers  with  concentrated  milk 
of  lime,  unless  the  character  of  the  infection  requires  the  use  of  another 
disinfectant. 

When  the  method  of  storing  the  manure  which  is  permitted  is  such  that 
there  is  danger  of  the  infectious  material  being  spread  by  contaminated  water 
flowing  into  other  premises,  by  the  manure  being  accessible  to  strange  persons 
or  animals,  or  by  springs,  streams  or  other  water  suppUes  being  contaminated, 
then  the  manure  is  to  be  treated  with  concentrated  milk  of  lime  in  the  stalls 
before  it  is  removed  to  the  place  of  storage. 

2.  Liquid  manure  and  dirty  water,  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  used  in  the 
composting  of  manure  (No.  1),  are  to  be  disinfected  with  lime,  concentrated 
milk  of  lime,  calcium  chloride  or  concentrated  solution  of  calcium  chloride. 
At  least  1  part  by  volume  of  lime  or  calcium  chloride  or  3  parts  by  volume  of 
concentrated  milk  of  lime  or  concentrated  calcium  chloride  solution  are  to 
be  used  to  each  100  parts  of  liquid  manure  or  dirty  water.  The  mixture  must 
be  thoroughly  stirred  and  allowed  to  stand  for  at  least  2  hours. 

3.  Feed  and  straw  stored  in  the  rooms  to  be  disinfected  are  to  be  removed 
without  harm  in  so  far  as  the  regulations  do  not  provide  that  they  be  disposed 
of  in  another  manner  (§§  15  to  27). 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  191 

4.  Ceilings  and  walls,  fittings  (mangers,  troughs,  pillars,  posts,  stalls, 
doors,  door  posts,  windows,  etc.),  floors,  gutters,  canals,  troughs  and  pits 
are  to  be  whitewashed  with  dilute  milk  of  lime  or  calcium  chloride  solution 
or  brushed  or  thoroughly  sprayed  with  dilute  cresol  water,  carbo^c  acid, 
formaldehyde,  corrosive  subUmate  or  cresol-sulphuric  acid  solution. 

Iron  parts  are  to  be  treated  with  dilute  cresol  water  or  with  carbolic  acid 
solution. 

5.  Impervious  paving  or  floors  in  court  yards,  railroad  stock  pens,  slaughter 
houses,  stock-yards,  roads  (streets),  ships  and  ferries  are  to  be  washed  or 
sprayed  in  a  suitable  manner  with  dilute  milk  of  Ume  or  calcium  chloride 
solution  or  other  disinfectants  (§§  15  to  27).  In  cold  weather  the  pavements 
are  washed  with  cresol-sulphuric  acid  solution  containing  sodium  chloride 
or  are  sprinkled  with  powdered,  freshly-slaked  lime. 

The  same  process  may  be  used  for  court  yards,  stock-yards,  roads,  streets 
and  farm  stock  pens  which  have  a  paving  that  is  pervious  or  which  are  unpaved. 

6.  Earth  and  sand  floors  which  are  not  moistened  with  the  excretions  of 
diseased  or  suspected  animals,  including  earth  and  sand  under  floors  removed 
according  to  §  5, 4  to  7,  and  the  manure  piles  in  sheep  and  cattle  stables  which 
are  not  removed  in  cleaning  are  to  be  sprayed  with  concentrated  milk  of  hme 
or  sprinkled  with  freshly  slaked  lime  until  the  ground  and  manure  are  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  Ume. 

7.  Wood  utensils,  including  vehicles  and  sleds  used  to  haul  cadavers, 
cadaver  parts,  straw,  manure  and  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 
of  animals  which  have  been  killed  or  slaughtered,  are,  in  so  far  as  they  cannot 
be  burned,  to  be  singed,  or  washed  with  dilute  cresol  water,  carboHc  acid, 
formaldehyde,  cresol-sulphuric  acid  or  corrosive  subhmate  solution. 

8.  Utensils  of  iron  and  other  metals  are  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of 
fire  for  a  short  time  or  washed  with  dilute  cresol  water,  carbolic  acid  or  for- 
maldehyde solution. 

9.  Articles  of  leather,  especially  foot-gear,  and  rubber  are  to  be  carefully 
and  repeatedly  wiped  with  cloths  which  have  been  saturated  with  cresol  water, 
carbolic  acid  or  corrosive  sublimate  solution. 

10.  Linen,  hemp  (jute),  cotton  and  woolen  articles,  clothing  and  bed 
covers,  hair,  wool,  feathers,  feed  sacks,  cushion  stuffing,  etc.,  which  cannot 
be  burned,  or  which  are  not  required  to  be  disposed  of  in  another  manner  in 
certain  diseases  (see  §§  15  to  27),  are  to  be  laid  for  24  hours  in  dilute  cresol 
water,  carboUc  acid,  corrosive  sublimate,  or  formaldehyde  solution,  or  dis- 
infected by  boihng  or  in  a  steam  apparatus. 

Pieces  of  clothing  which  are  only  shghtly  soiled  may  be  disinfected  by 
moistening  and  scrubbing  with  dilute  cresol  water,  carboUc  acid,  corrosive 
subhmate  or  formaldehyde  solution. 

11.  Animals  are  to  be  washed  with  a  proper  disinfectant  (see  §§  15  to  27), 


192        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

especially  when  in  places  in  which  the  skin  and  hoofs  or  claws  may  have  been 
soiled  with  manure  or  other  excretions. 

12.  Hands  and  other  parts  of  persons  are  to  be  thoroughly  brushed  with 
dilute  cresol  water,  carboUc  acid  or  corrosive  sublimate  solution  and  after 
about  five  minutes  washed  with  warm  water  and  soap. 

(Subdivision  2.)  The  government  may  permit  deviations  from  the  proc- 
esses described  in  Nos.  1  to  12, 

IV.  Methods  Prescribed  for  the  Different  Diseases 
Anthrax 

§  15.  1.  Persons  who  have  come  in  contact  with  the  bloody  excretions 
from  an  infected  or  suspected  animal,  or  who  have  assisted  in  bloody  opera- 
tions on  such  animals  or  in  the  slaughtering  or  destruction  of  the  same,  or 
who  have  assisted  in  the  opening  or  removal  of  the  cadavers,  shall  immediately 
wash  and  disinfect  thoroughly  the  hands  and  other  parts  of  the  body  which 
may  have  been  soiled,  also  soiled  clothing  and  foot-gear. 

2.  As  soon  as  an  infected  or  suspected  animal  dies,  is  killed,  recovers  or 
is  removed  from  its  stall,  the  cleaning  and  disinfection  must  be  immediately 
begun.  This  must  include  the  stall  in  which  the  animal  stood,  the  place  where 
it  died  or  was  killed,  and,  where  the  disease  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  certain 
parts  of  the  stable  or  the  entire  stable,  as  the  official  veterinarian  may  in  his 
judgment  determine;  also  floors,  walls,  posts,  pillars,  stall  divisions,  mangers, 
racks,  troughs,  etc.,  stable  and  slaughtering  utensils,  clothing  and  foot-gear 
of  the  attendants  and  other  objects  which  are  contaminated  with  eUminations, 
blood  or  offal  of  infected  or  suspected  animals  or  which  may  be  assumed  to  be 
otherwise  infected  with  the  organisms  of  anthrax;  stored  feed  or  straw  which 
diseased  or  suspected  animals  may  have  come  in  contact  with  or  which  may  be 
assumed  to  have  been  otherwise  infected;  vehicles  and  vessels  used  to  remove 
cadavers  or  parts  of  the  same,  offal,  manure,  etc.,  and,  when  necessary,  con- 
taminated places  in  the  pasture,  burial  and  storage  places  and  water  troughs. 

3.  The  disinfection  is  carried  out  as  directed  in  §  14  and  the  cleaning  is 
preceded  by  a  preliminary  disinfection  (see  §  6,  No.  10;  §  6,  subdivision  2). 
As  disinfectants,  calcium  chloride,  dilute  and  concentrated  calcium  chloride 
solutions,  corrosive  sublimate  or  formaldehyde  solutions  are  to  be  used. 
Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  solids  and  fluids  liberated  in  killing, 
especially  the  bloody  eliminations  from  diseased  or  suspected  animals  and 
their  cadavers  and  blood.  This  material,  together  with  the  bedding,  feed 
residue,  manure,  the  earth  removed  from  unpaved  floors  and  articles  of  little 
value,  is  to  be  disposed  of  like  the  cadavers  (see  the  directions  for  the  harmless 
removal  of  the  cadavers).  Liquid  manure  contaminated  with  blood  or  bloody 
ehminations  from  diseased  or  suspected  animals  is  to  be  disinfected  with 
calcium  chloride  or  solution  of  calcium  chloride  (§  14,  subdivision  1,  No.  2). 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  193 

4.  Stores  of  feed  or  straw  which  contain  anthrax  organisms,  or  which 
there  is  reason  to  beUeve  may  be  infected,  may  be  disinfected  by  steam  in 
suitable  apparatus  or  by  exposure  to  sufficient  heat  through  other  methods. 
If  this  is  not  possible,  the  feed  and  straw  is  to  be  burned  or  buried,  unless 
permission  is  given  by  the  sanitary  authorities  to  use  it  for  animals  which 
have  undergone  vaccination  for  anthrax. 

Black  Leg  and  Hemorrhagic  Septicasmia 

§  16.  For  black  leg  and  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  the  methods  described 
in  §  15  are  employed,  except  the  prehminary  disinfection  specified  in  No.  3. 

Rabies 

§  17.  1.  Immediately  after  the  death  or  destruction  of  a  diseased  or  sus- 
pected animal,  the  place  occupied  by  it,  especially  the  floors,  walls,  mangers, 
racks,  troughs,  partitions,  posts,  pillars,  and  stalls  contaminated  by  it,  and 
the  utensils  and  other  objects  with  which  it  has  come  in  contact,  shall  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected  as  directed  in  §  13. 

2.  In  rabies  of  the  dog  and  cat,  the  bedding,  muzzle,  collar,  leash,  blanket, 
utensils  and  other  objects  which  have  been  used  by  the  diseased  or  suspected 
animal  shall  be  burned  or  rendered  harmless  in  some  other  way.  Dog  houses 
of  wood,  straw,  reeds  or  similar  material  are  to  be  biuned;  those  of  other 
material  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  as  directed  in  §  13. 

Glanders 

§  18.  1.  Persons  who  have  come  in  contact  with  diseased  or  suspected 
animals,  cadavers  or  cadaver  parts,  are  to  immediately  clean  and  disinfect 
their  hands.  Water,  soap  and  suitable  disinfectants  (dilute  cresol  water, 
carbolic  acid  or  corrosive  sublimate  solution)  are  to  be  at  hand  for  this  pur- 
pose in  infected  premises. 

2.  As  soon  as  an  infected  or  suspected  animal  is  removed  from  its  stall, 
the  latter  and  all  equipment  and  utensils  used  for  the  diseased  or  suspected 
animal  are  to  be  immediately  cleaned  and  disinfected,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
latter  are  to  be  used  for  other  diseased  animals. 

3.  Before  the  removal  of  the  quarantine  restrictions,  certain  parts  of  the 
stable  or  the  entire  stable,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  official  veterinarian  may 
be  necessary,  the  utensils  and  equipment  (mangers,  racks,  posts,  pillars,  stall 
partitions,  buckets  and  other  stable  apparatus,  tie  ropes,  halters,  harness, 
saddles,  cleaning  implements,  covers,  housing,  clothing  and  foot-gear  of  the 
attendants,  wagon  poles,  chains,  water  troughs,  shoeing  places,  etc.)  and 
other  objects  which  have  been  in  contact  with  diseased  or  suspected  ani- 
mals, their  eliminations,  cadavers  or  cadaver  parts  are  to  be  cleaned  and 
disinfected;  also,  any  contaminated  places  in  the  pastures. 

13 


194        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

4.  The  disinfection  is  to  be  carried  out  according  to  §  14  and  the  cleaning 
is  to  be  preceded  by  a  preliminary  disinfection.  Any  of  the  disinfectants 
mentioned  in  §  11,  subdivision  1,  may  be  employed.  Special  attention  must 
be  given  to  objects  contaminated  with  nasal  discharge,  secretions  from  cutane- 
ous ulcers,  manure  and  urine  from  diseased  or  suspected  animals.  Manure, 
straw,  feed  residue,  etc.,  may  be  composted  and  the  urine  or  other  elimina- 
tions from  diseased  or  suspected  animals  treated  with  a  disinfectant. 

Foot-and-Mouth  Disease 

§  19.  1.  The  attendants  of  diseased  or  suspected  animals  in  infected 
premises,  persons  who  have  engaged  in  the  slaughter  or  transportation  of 
such  animals  or  in  the  removal  of  the  bedding  or  the  plowing  under  of  the 
manure,  and  other  persons  who  have  come  in  contact  with  suspected  or  dis- 
eased animals  in  infected  premises  or  who  have  visited  stables  in  which  such 
animals  have  been  placed,  must,  before  leaving,  change  or  clean  and  disinfect 
the  clothing  and  foot-gear  and  also  clean  and  disinfect  the  hands  and  other 
parts  of  the  body  which  may  be  contaminated. 

2.  Utensils,  vehicles,  vessels  and  other  articles  which  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  diseased  or  suspected  animals  or  their  eliminations  and  which  must 
be  used  outside  of  the  infected  premises  during  the  continuance  of  the  disease 
are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  before  being  removed  from  the  infected 
premises.  Milk  cans  which  must  be  removed  from  the  infected  premises  for 
use  outside  during  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  are  to  be  disinfected,  after 
being  emptied,  as  directed  in  §  11,  subdivision  1,  Nos.  9  and  10. 

3.  When  manure  is  removed  from  infected  stables  it  is  to  be  composted 
on  the  premises  or  in  some  other  suitable  place  from  which  the  infection  can- 
not spread  (§  14,  subdivision  1,  No.  1),  or,  if  this  is  impracticable,  concen- 
trated milk  of  lime  is  to  be  poured  over  it  before  it  is  removed  from  the  stable. 

4.  Urine  and  manure  from  ruminants  and  swine  can  be  removed  from 
premises  during  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  only  under  the  most  pressing 
circumstances  and  with  the  permission  of  the  sanitary  authorities.  The 
material  must  not  be  hauled  with  cattle  from  other  premises.  The  liquid 
manure  must  be  removed  in  tight  vessels  and  the  wagons  used  to  haul  manure 
which  has  not  been  composted  must  also  be  tight.  If  the  material  is  hauled 
over  public  roads  and  the  roads  cannot  be  closed  while  the  hauUng  continues, 
then  the  manure  is  to  be  wet  with  concentrated  milk  of  hme.  Manure  which 
was  not  composted  before  removal  is  to  be  immediately  plowed  under  or 
composted.  In  the  latter  case,  when  the  packing  process  is  completed  access 
of  ruminants  and  swine  should  be  prevented. 

5.  At  the  final  disinfection,  which  is  to  be  carried  out  as  directed  in  §  11, 
the  places  occupied  by  diseased  or  suspected  animals  (stables,  yards,  exercise 
yards,  bull  stalls,  breeding  stalls,  shoeing  places,  etc.,  stock  pens,  stock-yards 


DISINFECTANTS.     ANTISEPTICS  195 

and  roads);  the  places  used  to  store  manure,  cadavers  and  cadaver  parts; 
the  watering  trough  and  its  surroundings;  harness;  wagon  poles;  utensils 
used  in  attending  to  the  diseased  or  suspected  animals  (watering  buckets, 
milk  pails,  milk  stools,  milk  cans,  manure  forks,  shovels,  etc.);  feed  sacks; 
skin,  horns,  claws,  wool  and  other  animal  products  which  may  be  infected 
either  because  of  their  origin  or  place  of  storage,  and  the  clothing  and  foot- 
gear of  the  attendants  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Special  attention  is 
to  be  given  to  objects  which  have  been  contaminated  with  saliva  or  manure 
from  diseased  or  suspected  animals.  Skin,  horns,  claws  and  other  raw  animal 
products  are  to  be  disinfected  by  complete  drying  or  by  immersion  for  24 
hours  in  dilute  milk  of  lime  or  through  treatment  with  other  disinfectants. 
Wool  may  be  removed  from  the  infected  premises  if  it  is  packed  in  closed 
sacks. 

6.  Feed  and  straw  which  have  been  stored  in  infected  stables  or  which 
have  been  otherwise  contaminated  by  the  ehminations  from  diseased  or 
suspected  animals  cannot  be  removed  from  the  infected  premises  but  must 
be  used  there  or  rendered  harmless. 

7.  At  the  final  disinfection,  the  claws  of  cattle  from  the  infected  stable 
are  to  be  trimmed  and  the  animals  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  (§  4  and 
§  14,  subdivision  1,  No.  1). 

8.  Finally,  at  the  final  disinfection  all  of  the  attendants  employed  on  the 
premises  which  were  infected  and  all  persons  who  otherwise  came  in  contact 
with  diseased  or  suspected  animals  are  to  clean  and  disinfect  the  hands  and 
arms  and  any  other  parts  of  the  body  which  may  have  come  in  contact  with 
the  animals. 

9.  Any  of  the  disinfectants  named  in  §  11,  subdivision  1,  may  be  used. 

Lung  Plagtte 

§  20.  1.  The  attendants  who  have  cared  for  diseased  or  suspected  animals, 
persons  who  have  been  engaged  in  the  slaughter  or  transportation  of  such 
animals,  and  other  persons  who  have  come  in  contact  with  diseased  or  sus- 
pected animals  or  who  visit  stables  in  which  such  animals  are  kept,  must, 
before  leaving  the  infected  premises  or  slaughter  place,  change  the  clothing 
and  foot-gear  or  clean  and  disinfect  the  same,  and  must  also  clean  and  dis- 
infect the  hands  and  the  other  parts  of  the  body  which  may  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  diseased  animals. 

2.  During  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  on  infected  premises,  in  case  of 
the  removal  of  a  diseased  or  suspected  animal  from  its  stall  or  from  the  stable, 
the  stall  and  its  fittings  and  the  utensils  used  in  caring  for  the  animal  must 
be  at  once  cleaned,  and  disinfected  in  accordance  with  the  directions  in  §  13. 
Feed  residue  contaminated  by  the  expired  air  of  the  animal  must  be  burned 
or  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  manure  and  bedding. 


196        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

3.  Manxire  and  bedding  must  be  removed  from  infected  premises  to  the 
field  and  plowed  under  without  the  use  of  cattle  from  other  premises.  If 
it  cannot  be  plowed  under  at  once,  it  must  be  piled  up  in  heaps  and  cattle 
must  not  be  permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  it  for  at  least  2  weeks. 

4.  At  the  final  disinfection,  the  infected  stable  and  other  compartments 
on  the  infected  premises  which  have  been  occupied  by  diseased  or  suspected 
animals  or  their  cadavers,  the  equipment  and  utensils  which  have  come  in 
contact  with  such  animals,  and  the  clothing  and  foot-gear  of  the  attendants 
are  to  be  cleaned,  and  disinfected  as  directed  in  §  13. 

5.  Feed  and  straw  stored  in  the  infected  stables  or  over  such  stables 
above  a  loose  ceiling  must  not  be  removed  from  the  premises  after  the  disease 
has  been  stamped  out.  These  materials  may  be  used  for  horses,  swine  or  sheep, 
but  must  be  placed  where  cattle  cannot  come  in  contact  with  them.  If  they 
cannot  be  disposed  of  in  this  way,  they  are  to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  manure. 

Sheep-pox 
§  21.  1.  The  attendants  who  have  cared  for  diseased  or  suspected  sheep 
in  infected  premises,  those  persons  who  have  been  engaged  in  shearing,  slaugh- 
tering or  transporting  such  animals,  and  other  persons  who  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  diseased  or  suspected  animals  or  who  visit  stables  in  which  such 
animals  are  kept,  must,  before  leaving  the  infected  premises,  change  or  clean 
and  disinfect  their  clothing  and  foot-gear  and  must  also  clean  and  disinfect 
the  hands  and  other  parts  of  the  body  which  may  have  come  in  contact  with 
the  diseased  animals. 

2.  The  manure  is  to  be  permitted  to  remain  in  the  stable  until  the  final 
disinfection.  If  it  is  necessary  to  remove  it,  then  it  is  to  be  composted  (§  14, 
subdivision  1,  No.  1)  on  the  premises  or  in  some  other  suitable  place  from 
which  the  infectious  material  cannot  spread;  or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  it  must 
be  wet  with  concentrated  milk  of  lime  before  removal.  Manure  which  cannot 
be  composted  on  the  premises  can  only  be  removed  with  the  permission  of  the 
sanitary  authorities;  it  must  be  hauled  to  the  field  in  tight  wagons  and  imme- 
diately plowed  under  or  composted.  In  the  latter  case,  access  of  strange 
sheep  must  be  prevented  until  the  composting  is  finished. 

3.  At  the  final  disinfection,  the  stables  and  other  compartments  in  which 
diseased  or  suspected  animals  have  been  kept,  the  equipment  and  utensils 
which  came  in  contact  with  such  animals  or  their  eliminations,  and  the  clothing 
and  foot-gear  of  the  attendants  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Any  of 
the  disinfectants  named  in  §  11,  subdivision  1,  may  be  used  in  the  disinfec- 
tion, which  is  to  be  carried  out  as  directed  in  §  14. 

4.  Feed  and  straw  stored  in  infected  stables  or  over  such  stables  above 
a  loose  ceiling  are  to  be  thoroughly  aired  and  used  only  on  the  infected  premises 
or  rendered  harmless. 


DISINFECTANTS.     ANTISEPTICS  197 

Dourine  and  Vesicular  Exanthema 

§  22.  No  disinfection  is  required  for  dourine  and  vesicular  exanthema. 

Mange  [Scab] 

§  23.  1.  During  the  treatment  of  the  diseased  or  suspected  horses  or 
sheep,  or  of  sheep  flocks  in  which  the  disease  exists,  the  stables,  hurdles, 
equipment,  utensils,  blankets,  cleaning  implements  and  other  objects  which 
have  come  in  contact  with  such  animals  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected. 
When  the  animals  are  treated  by  dipping,  the  cleaning  and  disinfection  is  to 
be  carried  out  at  each  dipping.  If  the  animals  are  treated  by  hand  appHca- 
tions,  the  cleaning  and  disinfection  is  to  be  repeated  at  shorter  or  longer  inter- 
vals according  to  the  degree  of  the  disease.  After  the  completion  of  the 
curative  treatment,  the  final  disinfection  is  to  be  made. 

2.  Stables  or  other  compartments  and  hurdles  used  by  horses  or  sheep 
affected  with  mange  before  slaughter,  or  before  treatment  was  begun,  must 
be  immediately  cleaned  and  disinfected  after  the  diseased  animals  are 
removed. 

3.  The  disinfection  is  carried  out  as  directed  in  §  14.  As  disinfectants, 
dilute  cresol  water,  carbohc  acid  solution  or  lime  are  to  be  used.  Special 
attention  is  to  be  given  to  all  objects  with  which  the  diseased  or  suspected 
animals  have  come  in  contact  (mangers,  racks,  posts,  pillars,  stalls,  tie  ropes, 
halters,  harness,  saddles,  cleaning  instruments,  blankets,  housing,  clothes  of 
attendants,  wagon  poles,  etc.,  in  connection  with  horses;  hurdles,  racks, 
mangers,  posts,  sheep  folds,  sheep  shears,  shovels,  manure,  clothing  and  foot- 
gear of  the  attendants,  etc.,  in  connection  with  sheep). 

4.  The  manure  from  the  infected  stables  is  to  be  removed  to  the  field 
and  immediately  plowed  under.  If  the  latter  cannot  be  done  at  once,  the 
sheep  are  to  be  kept  away  from  the  manure  until  the  work  is  finished. 

[The  regulations  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (B.  A.  I.  order 
No.  143)  regarding  disinfection  for  cattle  mange  and  sheep  scab  are  as  follows: 

Regulation  28.  Cars  and  other  vehicles,  yards,  pens,  sheds,  chutes,  etc., 
which  have  contained  diseased  cattle  shall  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  in  the 
following  manner:  Remove  all  the  fitter  and  manure  and  then  saturate  the 
interior  surfaces  of  the  cars  and  woodwork,  flooring,  and  ground  of  the  chutes, 
alleys,  and  pens  with  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  pure  carbofic  acid  in  water, 
with  sufl&cient  lime  to  show  where  it  has  been  appfied. 

Regulation  37.  Cars  and  other  vehicles,  yards,  pens,  sheds,  chutes,  etc., 
that  have  contained  diseased  sheep  shall  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  in  the 
following  manner:  Remove  all  fitter  and  manure  and  then  saturate  the  in- 
terior surfaces  of  the  cars  and  the  woodwork,  flooring,  and  ground  of  the 
sheds,  alleyways,  and  pens  with  a  solution  containing  5  per  cent,  of  pure 


198         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

carbolic  acid  or  with  a  solution  containing  2  per  cent,  of  cresol.  When  cresol 
is  used  it  must  be  mixed  with  soft  soap  in  order  to  render  it  easily  soluble  in 
cold  water.] 

Swine  Plague  and  Hog  Cholera 

§  24.  1.  Manure,  bedding,  feed  residue,  etc.,  removed  from  infected 
pens  are  to  be  composted  (§  14,  subdivision  1,  No.  1).  If  this  is  not  feasible, 
then  these  materials  are  to  be  burned  or  buried  with  the  cadavers  of  animals 
which  die  or  are  destroyed.  The  rejected  parts  of  slaughtered  diseased  ani- 
mals are  also  to  be  buried  or  burned  and  the  offal,  including  the  water  used 
to  wash  the  meat  and  viscera,  is  to  be  rendered  harmless. 

2.  The  passageway  between  the  pens,  the  place  before  the  stable  door,  the 
entrance  to  the  yaird  and  the  roads  to  the  stable  and  on  the  farm  are  to  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected  with  dilute  calcium  chloride  solution  or  6  per  cent, 
cresol  water  at  least  every  8  days  during  the  continuance  of  the  disease. 

3.  Utensils,  vehicles,  vessels  and  other  articles  which  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  diseased  or  suspected  animals  or  with  their  eUminations  are  to  be 
disinfected  before  being  removed  from  the  premises. 

4.  At  the  final  disinfection  the  places  in  which  the  diseased  or  suspected 
animals  have  been  kept  (pens  and  adjoining  compartments  such  as  the  feed- 
cooking  room,  exercise  place,  yard,  breeding  pen,  stock-yards,  railroad  stock 
pens,  etc.),  the  utensils  (buckets,  forks,  shovels,  troughs,  etc.)  used  in  caring 
for  and  in  slaughtering  such  animals,  the  vehicles  and  sleds  used  to  haul  the 
cadavers,  straw,  manure  and  other  ofifal,  the  clothing  and  foot-gear  of  the 
attendants,  feed  sacks  and  other  articles  which  have  come  in  contact  with 
diseased  or  suspected  animals  or  which  there  is  reason  to  assume  may  be 
infected,  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Special  attention  is  to  be  given 
to  objects  contaminated  with  the  manure,  urine  and  blood  of  diseased  or 
suspected  animals.  The  manure  and  straw  are  to  be  removed  from  the  rooting- 
place  and  the  superficial  layer  of  earth  is  to  be  removed,  after  which,  if  pos- 
sible, the  surface  of  the  ground  is  to  be  thoroughly  saturated  with  dilute 
calcium  chloride  solution  or  with  6  per  cent,  cresol  water,  then  raked  or  har- 
rowed until  level  and  repeatedly  saturated  with  the  disinfectants  named. 
New  swine  brought  on  to  the  premises  are  to  be  kept  away  from  the  rooting- 
place  as  long  as  possible.  Earth  removed  from  the  floors  and  other  places  is 
to  be  removed  to  fields  not  accessible  to  swine  and  buried  or  plowed  under. 

5.  The  disinfection  of  the  pens  and  other  compartments  used  by  diseased 
or  suspected  animals  is  to  be  carried  out  according  to  the  directions  in  §  14. 
As  disinfectants,  dilute  calcium  chloride  solution  or  6  per  cent,  cresol  water 
are  to  be  used. 

(The  regulations  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (B.  A.  I.  order  143) 
contain  the  following  regarding  disinfection  for  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague: 


DISINFECTANTS.     ANTISEPTICS  199 

Regulation  45.  Cars  and  other  vehicles  and  pens  or  yards  which  have 
contained  interstate  shipments  of  diseased  or  exposed  swine  shall  be  cleaned 
and  disinfected  as  soon  as  possible  after  unloading.  Cars  that  have  contained 
interstate  shipments  of  swine  shall  not  be  removed  until  the  inspector  has 
ascertained  the  condition  of  the  live  animals  and  either  released  the  cars  or 
given  notice  that  they  shall  be  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Cleaning  and  dis- 
infection shall  be  done  by  first  removing  all  litter  and  manure  and  then  satu- 
rating the  interior  surfaces  of  the  cars  and  the  woodwork,  flooring,  and  ground 
of  the  chutes,  alleys,  and  pens  with  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  pure  carboUc 
acid  in  water,  or  with  a  solution  containing  2  per  cent,  of  cresol.  When 
cresol  is  used  it  must  be  mixed  with  soft  soap  in  order  to  render  it  easily  soluble 
in  water.  (Subsequently,  it  was  found  that  a  3  per  cent,  solution  of  the  ofl&cial 
liquor  cresolis  compositus  was  more  efficient  than  the  carbolic  acid  solution.)] 

Swine  Erysipelas 

§  25.  1.  When  swine  erysipelas  is  present,  the  cleaning  and  disinfection 
includes,  as  a  rule,  the  pen  occupied  by  the  diseased  or  suspected  animal; 
when  several  cases  occur  a  certain  portion  of  the  building  or  the  entire  build- 
ing occupied  by  swine  is  to  be  disinfected,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  official 
veterinarian  may  be  necessary;  also,  the  equipment,  utensils  and  other  ob- 
jects which  have  come  in  contact  with  diseased  or  suspected  animals  or  their 
excretions,  cadavers  or  cadaver  parts.  The  pen  occupied  by  the  diseased  or 
suspected  animals,  a  portion  of  the  building  or  the  entire  building,  as  may 
be  required,  is  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  immediately  after  the  death, 
slaughter  or  removal  of  all  the  ewine,  or  within  6  days  after  the  last  case  of 
the  disease. 

2.  The  disinfection  is  to  be  made  as  directed  in  §  13.  Any  of  the  disin- 
fectants named  in  §  11,  subdivision  1,  may  be  employed. 

Fowl  Cholera  and  Fowl  Pest 

§  26.  1.  The  coops  and  other  compartments  occupied  by  diseased  or 
suspected  fowl,  the  cages,  other  containers  and  transportation  crates,  the  run, 
baths  or  swimming  pools,  the  utensils  and  other  objects  which  have  come  in 
contact  with  such  fowl,  their  excretions,  cadavers  or  cadaver  parts,  and  the 
places  where  such  fowl  have  been  slaughtered  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected 
as  prescribed  in  §  14.  Any  of  the  disinfectants  named  in  §  11,  subdivision  1, 
may  be  employed. 

2.  Special  attention  must  be  given  to  the  eliminations  of  diseased  or  sus- 
pected fowl  and  to  blood  escaping  at  the  slaughter  of  the  same.  This  offal 
is  to  be  carefully  collected  and  buried  or  burned  with  the  cadavers,  together 
with  the  litter,  manure,  feathers,  feed  residue,  earth  removed  from  unpaved 
floors  and  from  the  run,  and  all  other  objects  of  slight  value  which  are  con- 
taminated with  manure  or  blood.    Rejected  parts  of  slaughtered,  diseased  or 


200         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

suspected  fowl  and  other  slaughter  offal  are  to  be  rendered  harmless  by  being 
burned  or  buried.  Offal  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot  be  burned  must  be 
collected  together  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  an  equal  amount  of  milk  of 
lime  and  then  buried.  The  surface  layer  of  earth  is  to  be  removed  from  the 
runs  and  the  ground  is  then  to  be  wet  with  concentrated  milk  of  lime.  Lime 
or  concentrated  milk  of  lime  is  to  be  mixed  with  the  water  in  the  swimming 
pools  or  baths  in  the  same  manner  as  it  is  mixed  with  liquid  manure  (§14, 
No.  2,  subdivision  1);  after  24  hours  the  water  is  to  be  removed  and  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  pool  or  bath  disinfected  with  concentrated  milk  of  lime. 

3.  Large  quantities  of  manure  may  be  composted.  Feathers  in  dry  condi- 
tion may  be  removed  from  infected  premises  packed  in  closed  sacks,  with  the 
approval  of  the  sanitary  authorities. 

Tuberculosis 
§  27.  1.  Immediately  after  cattle  in  which  tuberculosis  is   established 
according  to  law  or  in  which  its  presence  appears  probable  are  removed,  the 
stalls  occupied  by  them  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected. 

2.  The  cleaning  and  disinfection,  as  a  rule,  includes  the  stall,  but  in  the 
event  of  the  occurrence  of  several  cases,  or  if  the  diseased  or  suspected  animal 
has  occupied  different  stalls  in  the  stable,  then  the  official  veterinarian  may 
require  the  cleaning  and  disinfection  of  a  portion  of  the  stable  or  the  entire 
stable,  as  he  may  consider  necessary.  In  every  case  the  equipment,  utensils 
and  other  objects  contaminated  by  the  elimination  of  the  animal  are  to  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected,  especially  the  manger,  feed  vessels,  racks,  water 
troughs,  the  alleys  and  walls  adjoining  the  stall,  the  floor,  and  the  cleaning 
and  milking  utensils. 

3.  The  disinfection  is  to  be  carried  out  according  to  §  13.  Milk  pails 
and  other  milk  vessels  are  to  be  disinfected  by  steam,  by  boiling  or  by 
scrubbing  with  boiling  hot  water  or  boihng  hot  soda  solution  (see  §  11,  sub- 
division 1,  Nos.  9  and  10). 

[Southern  Cattle  Fever 

The  regulations  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (B.  A.  I.  order 
143,  amendment  4)  require  that  cars  which  have  carried  cattle  from  the 
quarantined  area  shall  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  as  follows:  "Remove  all 
litter  and  manure  from  all  portions  of  the  cars,  including  the  ledges  and 
framework  outside;  wash  the  exterior  and  interior  of  the  car  until  clean  and 
satm-ate  the  entire  interior  surface,  including  the  inner  surface  of  the  car 
doors,  with  the  disinfecting  material." 

Boats  which  have  carried  cattle  from  the  quarantined  area  must  be  cleaned 
and  disinfected  as  follows:  "Remove  all  htter  and  manure  from  the  decks, 
stalls,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  boat  occupied  or  traversed  by  such  cattle, 
and  from  the  portable  chutes  or  other  appliances  or  fixtures  used  in  loading 


DISINFECTANTS.     ANTISEPTICS  201 

and  unloading  same,  and  wash  them  until  clean,  and  saturate  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  decks,  stalls,  or  other  parts  of  the  boat  occupied  or  traversed  by 
the  cattle,  or  with  which  they  may  have  come  in  contact  or  which  have  con- 
tained litter  or  manure,  with  the  disinfecting  material." 

Yards,  pens,  chutes,  and  alleyways  used  by  cattle  from  the  quarantined 
area  must  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  as  follows:  "Empty  all  troughs,  racks, 
or  other  feeding  or  watering  facilities  and  wash  them  until  clean;  remove  all 
litter  and  manure  from  the  floors,  posts,  or  other  parts  and  wash  them  until 
clean,  and  saturate  the  entire  surface  of  the  fencing,  troughs,  chutes,  floors, 
walls,  and  other  parts  with  the  disinfecting  material. 

"As  materials  for  the  disinfection  of  cars,  boats,  pens,  chutes,  and  alley- 
ways which  have  contained  cattle  of  the  quarantined  area  one  of  those  indi- 
cated below  shall  be  used.  (1)  A  mixture  made  with  not  more  than  1 3^  pounds 
of  Ume  and  ^  pound  of  pure  carbolic  acid  to  each  gallon  of  water.  In  lieu  of 
the  pure  carbolic  acid  required  to  make  this  solution  a  proper  quantity  of  so- 
called  'crude  carbolic  acid'  of  known  strength  (but  not  less  than  25  per  cent, 
pure)  may  be  used,  sufficient  to  make  a  disinfecting  solution  containing  5  per 
cent,  of  the  pure  acid.  (2)  Any  coal-tar  creosote  dip  permitted  in  the  official 
dipping  of  sheep  for  scabies,  provided  the  same  is  used  at  one-fifth  the 
maximum  dilution  (five  times  the  minimum  strength)  specified  for  dipping 
sheep. 

"The  litter  and  manure  removed  from  cars,  boats,  or  other  vehicles,  and 
from  pens,  chutes,  alleyways,  or  other  premises  or  inclosures  which  have 
contained  cattle  of  the  quarantined  area,  shall  not  be  so  located  or  stored 
that  they  come  in  contact  with  cattle  in  course  of  interstate  transportation 
unless  disinfected  by  one  of  the  methods  specified  below,  (l)  It  may  be 
disinfected  by  saturating  it  with  any  disinfecting  material  specified  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  of  the  strength  and  composition  indicated  therein, 
except  that  the  lime  may  be  omitted.  (2)  It  may  be  stored  without  disinfec- 
tion during  the  period  from  February  1  to  October  31,  inclusive,  of  each  year; 
when  stored  as  above  indicated,  the  storage  space  shall  be  tightly  inclosed  and 
BO  situated  or  so  surrounded  by  cattle-proof  fences  or  other  structures  that 
no  cattle  other  than  cattle  of  the  quarantined  area  may  approach  closer  to  it 
than  15  feet."] 

II.  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT    DISINFECTANTS  FOR  ANIMAL 
INFECTIONS 

Calx. — Lime.  Freshly  slaked  lime  (caustic  lime)  is  a  good  and 
easily  prepared  disinfectant  for  spore-free  bacteria.  It  is  also  the 
cheapest  disinfectant.  Anthrax  spores  and  tubercle  bacilli  are, 
however,  not  killed  by  lime.    It  is  used  in  the  form  of  a  powder, 


202        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

concentrated  milk  of  lime  (1  :  3)  and  dilute  milk  of  lime  (1  :  20), 
the  concentrated  solution  being  applied  as  a  whitewash,  and 
the  dilute  solution  being  used  to  disinfect  the  floors  and  also 
as  an  addition  to  manure  and  urine.  A  single  application  of 
dilute  milk  of  lime  (1  :  20)  kills  the  bacteria  of  fowl  cholera,  a 
triple  application  (1  :  20)  destroys  the  bacilli  of  glanders;  a  single 
application  of  concentrated  milk  of  lime  (1:3)  kills  the  bacilli  of 
swine  erysipelas,  the  hog  cholera  bacillus,  the  anthrax  bacilli 
and  typhoid  fever  bacilli.  Lime  operates  only  in  its  free  state  as 
a  caustic;  it  loses  its  disinfectant  properties  as  soon  as  it  combines 
with  acids;  the  carbonate,  phosphate,  sulphate  and  nitrate  of 
lime  are  ineffective.  It  must  be  added  to  the  substances  to  be 
disinfected  (manure,  urine)  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  the 
reaction  of  the  mixture  strongly  alkaline,  because,  under  certain 
conditions,  the  growth  of  microorganisms  is  facilitated  if  the 
reaction  of  an  acid  substance  is  rendered  neutral  or  only  weakly 
alkaline.  Since  the  preparation  of  milk  of  lime  from  burned  lime 
is  somewhat  difficult  and  complicated,  lime  from  lime  pits  may  be 
used,  but  the  upper  layer  should  first  be  removed. 

Special  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  disinfection  of 
manure  from  slaughter  houses  and  cattle  yards  with  lime,  espe- 
cially the  composting  of  manure  with  and  without  lime.  With  the 
exception  of  anthrax,  black  leg,  glanders,  rinderpest  and  rabies, 
in  which  it  is  best  to  bum  the  manure,  in  all  other  cattle  infec- 
tions the  manure  can  be  certainly,  simply  and  cheaply  disinfected 
with  a  fresh,  dilute  milk  of  lime  and  without  injuring  its  agricul- 
tural value.  In  composting  without  lime,  a  temperature  suffi- 
ciently high  (60  to  70°  C.)  is  developed  to  exert  a  disinfectant 
action  upon  the  organisms  of  swine  erysipelas,  fowl  cholera, 
glanders,  contagious  pneumonia,  strangles,  tuberculosis,  hemor- 
rhagic septicsemia,  etc.,  provided  care  is  taken  to  have  the  manure 
moderately  moist  (straw:  manure — 3: 2),  piled  rather  loosely  and 
covered  with  material  that  conducts  heat  poorly  (Pfeiler,  Bohtz). 

Calx  chlorinata.  Chloride  of  lime.  This  is  more  powerful 
than  lime;  in  a  solution  of  1  :  3  it  kills  even  anthrax  spores.  It  is 
therefore  superior  to  lime  for  whitewashing  walls,  washing  floors, 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  203 

etc.,  in  infectious  outbreaks;  also,  for  the  destruction  of  infectious 
material  difficult  to  destroy,  especially  as  a  cheap  disinfectant  for 
anthrax  spores  and  for  the  disinfection  of  urine.  According  to 
Hansen  (Monatshefte  fiir  prak.  Tierheilkunde,  1912)  the  addition 
of  0.2  per  cent,  of  calcium  chloride  to  liquid  manure  is  a  certain 
and  cheap  disinfectant  and  is  not  harmful  to  vegetation  and 
does  not  destroy  the  fertilizing  value.  Chloride  of  lime  is  uncer- 
tain against  glanders  and  tuberculosis.  A  1  per  cent,  solution 
kills  the  bacteria  of  fowl  cholera,  swine  erysipelas  and  hog  cholera 
and  the  bacilli  of  anthrax  in  one  minute.  Freund  recommends  the 
use  of  a  5  per  cent,  filtered  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  for  the  disin- 
fection of  railroad  cars;  the  process  is  very  complicated  (spraying 
with  a  pumping  apparatus  under  13^  atmospheres  pressure). 
The  formerly  much  used  chlorine  gas,  in  the  presence  of  sufficient 
moist  air  and  in  strong  concentration  (1  per  cent,  by  volume), 
will  destroy  all  air-dried  microorganisms  within  24  hours,  but 
for  practical  disinfection  it  is  of  no  value  because  the  necessary 
concentration  is  difficult  to  obtain  and  is  very  costly.  The  proc- 
ess of  chlorine  disinfection  is  also  very  complicated  and  dangerous. 
The  same  applies  to  bromine. 

Lyes.  The  antiseptic  effect  of  the  lyes  was  formerly  over- 
valued; their  disinfection  power  is  about  equal  to  lime.  Soda  lye, 
potash  lye,  soda  and  potash  are  in  general  of  the  same  value. 
Ammonia,  on  the  other  hand,  is  three  to  five  times  weaker.  Con- 
centrated solutions  of  these  substances  kill  the  bacteria  of  fowl 
cholera  and  swine  erysipelas  and  glanders  and  anthrax  bacilli. 
Anthrax  spores  and  tubercle  bacilli,  on  the  other  hand,  remain 
intact.  An  objection  is  the  caustic  action  of  solutions  of  the  re- 
quired concentration.  Boiling  hot  soda  solution  possesses  a  very 
high  disinfection  power. 

Soaps.  The  disinfectant  value  of  soaps  depends  upon  their 
alkali  content;  the  ordinary  soft  soap  is  therefore  the  most  power- 
ful. The  action  is  increased  by  using  boiling-hot  soap  water. 
The  latter  kills  the  more  readily  destroyed  infectious  agents  and 
at  the  same  time  has  a  cleansing  effect  which  assists  the  action  of 
the  stronger  antiseptics.    A  10  per  cent,  solution  of  the  ordinary 


204        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

soft  soap  (or  of  ordinary  washing  lye)  will  kill  anthrax  spores  in 
10  minutes  if  heated  to  80°  C.  Heating  the  soap  solution  (and 
the  soda  solution)  to  50°  C.  is  not  suflBcient. 

Acids.  They  are  in  general  poor  antiseptics,  but  are  coly- 
septics  (inhibit  development  of  bacteria).  Sulphuric  acid  does  not 
kill  anthrax  spores  in  1  per  cent,  solution  even  after  20  days' 
action;  its  irritant  effect  upon  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes  is 
also  objectionable.  The  experiments  with  acid  turf  litter  (foot- 
and-mouth  disease)  therefore  proved  unsatisfactory.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  combination  of  hydrochloric  acid  (2  per  cent.)  with 
sodium  chloride  (10  per  cent.)  is  a  strong  disinfectant;  this  "pick- 
Hng  fluid*'  disinfects  anthrax  and  black  leg  hides  with  certainty, 

Hydrargyri  chloridum  corrosivum.  Corrosive  sublimate.  The 
strongest  and  quickest  disinfectant  for  all  bacteria,  especially  all 
spore-forming  microorganisms  (anthrax  spores),  with  the  excep- 
tion of  tubercle  bacilli;  odorless,  very  cheap  and  easily  and  con- 
veniently transported  (sublimate  tablets).  Anthrax  spores  are 
destroyed  with  certainty  and  quickly  only  by  sublimate.  A  1 :  1000 
solution  destroys  all  of  the  organisms  of  the  infectious  diseases, 
including  anthrax  spores.  The  disinfectant  action  is  increased  by 
the  use  of  warm  solutions.  The  decomposition  of  the  sublimate 
by  ordinary  water  may  be  prevented  by  the  addition  of  sodium 
chloride  (sublimate  tablets)  or  organic  acids.  When  the  disinfection 
is  done  carefully,  the  poisonouspropertiesof  sublimate  are  of  no  con- 
sideration, not  even  in  the  disinfection  of  cattle  stables  (subsequent 
washing  with  3^  per  cent,  solution  with  sulphuretted  potash). 

Phenol.  Carbolic  acid.  A  weak  disinfectant  (100  times 
weaker  than  sublimate,  10  times  weaker  than  creolin,  lysol,  etc.); 
ineffective  against  anthrax  spores.  On  the  other  hand,  the  glanders 
bacillus  and  the  less  resistant  bacteria  (anthrax  bacilli,  etc.)  are 
quickly  killed  by  a  2  per  cent,  solution.  A  5  per  cent,  solution  is 
necessary  to  destroy  tubercle  bacilli.  The  odor  of  carbolic  acid 
is  unpleasant  and  is  transmitted  to  the  meat  and  milk  (poisoning 
of  man).    Carbolic  acid  disinfection  is  also  relatively  expensive. 

Cresol.  (*Creolin,  *lysol,  *bacillol.)  A  very  effective  and 
cheap  disinfectant;  far  superior  to  carbolic  acid;  effective  against 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  205 

anthrax  spores  and  rabies  virus.  Anthrax  bacilli  are  destroyed 
by  a  solution  of  1  :  5000.  Used  in  1  to  3  per  cent,  solution  in  water. 
For  extensive  disinfection,  especially  of  railroad  cars,  Fischer  and 
Koske  (Arb.  aus  d.  Kais.  Gesundheitsamt,  1903)  recommend  a  3 
per  cent,  solution  in  water  of  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  cresol  and  1 
part  of  sulphuric  acid  as  more  effective  and  cheaper  than  *lysol  or 
*liquor  cresolis  saponatus.  Cresol-sulphuric  acid  solution  to  which 
sodium  chloride  is  added  only  freezes  when  the  temperature  falls 
to  17  to  8.6°  F.,  which  makes  it  especially  suitable  for^  winter 
disinfection  (Kraut,  ibid.,  1907). 

Pix  liquida.  Tar.  An  excellent  disinfectant  covering.  Wood 
tar  kills  all  pathogenic  microorganisms,  including  anthrax  spores 
and  tubercle  bacilli.  Coal  tar  destroys  with  certainty  the  bacilli 
of  anthrax,  glanders  and  swine  erysipelas,  etc. 

Liquor  formaldehydi.  Formaldehyde  is  recommended  as  a 
gaseous  disinfectant  for  closed  compartments,  especially  railroad 
cars;  very  high  disinfectant  power.  A  certain  disinfectant  action, 
however,  can  only  be  obtained  by  the  employment  of  complicated 
apparatus  (lamps).  On  account  of  the  volatility  of  formaldehyde, 
the  compartment  to  be  disinfected  must  be  made  air  tight  (im- 
possible with  cattle  cars).  Furthermore,  the  disinfectant  action  is 
only  superficial,  and  anthrax  spores  are  not  destroyed.  The  process 
is  very  expensive  (a  compartment  of  100  cubic  metres  requires  the 
action  of  500  grams  of  formaldehyde,  or  1 J/^  liters  of  the  official  so- 
lution for  33^  hours).  Disinfection  with  fluids,  2  to  2J^  per  cent, 
of  formaldehyde,  has  the  same  disadvantages  and  is  also  injurious 
to  health.  See  the  investigations  of  von  Perkuhn  concerning  the  dis- 
infection of  stables  with  formaldehyde  vapor  by  means  of  Lingner's 
apparatus  (Monatshefte  fiir  prakt.  Tierheilkunde,  1905). 

*Autan.  This  preparation,  which  is  used  in  a  new  method  of 
formaldehyde  disinfection,  is  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder  contain- 
ing a  quantity  of  formaldehyde  with  alkaline  peroxides;  formalde- 
hyde vapor  is  Hberated  when  water  is  added.  Contradictory 
results  have  been  obtained  in  the  investigations  of  this  new  material 
and  the  experiments  are  not  yet  concluded  (a  newer  and,  it  is 
alleged,   an  improved  preparation).     The  same  conditions  are 


206        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

necessary  for  autan  as  for  formaldehyde  (see  above),  especially 
the  complete  sealing  of  the  compartment,  and  a  temperature  not 
under  10°  C.  is  also  required  (not  always  possible  with  railroad 
cars).  In  addition,  autan  is  also  expensive.  According  to  LofHer 
(Zeitschr.  f.  Vetkde.,  1909),  the  organisms  of  swine  erysipelas,  hog 
cholera,  strangles,  fowl  cholera,  anthrax  and  tuberculosis  are 
readily  destroyed  by  autan.  The  disinfection  must  continue  7 
hours,  the  compartment  must  be  completely  sealed  and  litter  and 
manure  must  be  removed. 

Chinosol.  This  preparation  is  very  active  in  inhibiting  the 
development  of  bacteria,  but  has  only  a  slight  antiseptic  action. 
It  is  ineffective  against  anthrax  spores;  very  expensive,  gives  an 
unpleasant  odor  to  the  animal  body,  is  not  absolutely  non-toxic 
and  cannot  be  used  for  the  disinfection  of  iron  objects,  manure, 
etc.,  because  it  is  decomposed  by  iron  and  alkaline  substances. 

Heat. — 1.  A  glowing  heat  acts  the  strongest  (disinfection  of 
chains  and  other  iron  objects). 

2.  Burning  is  the  best  method  of  rendering  anthrax  and  black 
leg  cadavers  harmless;  a  burning  process  which  has  proven  satis- 
factory in  practice  has  been  described  by  Lothes  and  Prof6  (Fort- 
schritte  der  Hygiene,  1904). 

3.  The  disinfectant  action  of  dry  heat  is  generally  overrated. 
Spore-free  bacteria  are  killed  by  dry  heat  of  100°  C.  In  the  usual 
method  of  employing  dry  heat  (oven),  however,  100°  C.  of  heat 
does  not  penetrate  the  object  of  disinfection  because  dry  air  is  a 
poor  conductor  of  heat.  Spore-containing  bacteria  (anthrax 
spores)  require  much  higher  degrees  of  heat  (140°  C.)  operating 
for  hours.  The  spores  contain  an  almost  water-free  albumin, 
which  it  is  very  difficult  for  the  dry  heat  to  penetrate.  With  the 
employment  of  the  hot  air  sterihzer  (oven,  140°  C),  the  heat  in 
the  interior  of  the  object  to  be  disinfected  is  usually  insufficient. 
After  3  hours'  exposure  to  140°  C.  in  a  hot  air  sterilizer,  a  wool- 
covered  ball  showed  a  temperature  of  only  35°  C.  in  the  centre. 

4.  Boiling  water  kills  spore-free  bacteria  in  a  short  time  (boil- 
ing the  milk  in  foot-and-mouth  disease).  Heating  milk  for  20 
minutes  at  65°  C.  kills  tubercle  bacilli,  colon  bacilli,  streptococci 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  207 

and  staphylococci  (pasteurization).  Anthrax  spores  withstand 
boiling  temperature.  Since  the  heat  only  penetrates  large,  solid 
objects  slowly,  it  is  recommended  that  the  boiling  be  continued  for 
at  least  one  hour.  Boiling  water  is  not  a  certain  disinfectant  when 
used  in  the  disinfection  of  stables  because  it  cools  rapidly  when 
spread  out  on  cold  surfaces.  In  disinfecting  by  boiling,  the  water 
containing  the  object  to  be  disinfected  is  placed  upon  the  fire  cold 
and  is  allowed  to  remain  for  at  least  3^  hour  after  boiling  begins; 
the  vessel  is  to  be  covered.  The  German  veterinary  sanitary  laws 
require  that  when  foot-and-mouth  disease  is  present  milk  shall  be 
disinfected  by  boiling,  and  that  in  the  case  of  tuberculosis  it  shall 
be  sufficiently  heated,  i.e.,  heated  over  an  open  fire  until  it  repeat- 
edly boils,  exposed  to  live  steam  at  85°  C,  or  heated  in  a  water  bath 
at  85°  C.  for  a  minute  or  at  70°  C.  for  a  half  hour.  The  action  of 
hot  fluids  is  especially  effective  when  a  disinfectant  is  added. 

5.  Live  steam  of  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  is  the  most  effective 
form  of  disinfection  by  heat  (sterilizing  apparatus)  and  should 
therefore  be  preferred,  when  convenient,  to  boiling;  has  not  only 
a  superficial  but  also  a  deep  action.  Anthrax  spores  and  tubercle 
bacilli  are  killed  in  5  minutes.  The  best  results  are  obtained  with 
an  atmospheric  pressure  of  about  one-tenth.  It  is  important  that 
the  temperature  be  not  permitted  to  fall  below  100°  C,  and  that 
an  abundant  supply  of  steam  be  introduced  into  the  apparatus 
in  order  that  the  air  (poor  heat  conductor)  will  be  expressed  as 
completely  as  possible  (apparatuses  of  Henneberg,  Rohrbeck, 
Lautenschlager,  etc.).  Disinfection  with  steam  is  most  suitable 
for  blankets  and  clothing;  on  the  contrary,  leather  articles  (saddles, 
girths,  halters)  are  spoiled.  Stables,  railroad  cars  and  large  com- 
partments in  general  cannot  be  disinfected  with  steam  on  account 
of  its  rapid  cooling.  In  using  steam  on  railroad  cars,  it  was  found 
that  the  highest  temperature  of  the  steam  at  the  outlet  tube  was 
90-95°  C;  slightly  removed  from  the  outlet  tube  (4  inches)  the 
temperature  was  only  60°  C,  40  inches  distant  50°  C,  80  inches 
distant  20°  C,  while  16  to  20  feet  distant  the  temperature  was 
raised  only  a  few  degrees  (Redard  and  Colin).  A  temperature  of 
100°  C.  cannot  be  attained  in  a  stable  even  with  steam  from 


208        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

boilers  carrying  8  atmospheres  pressure  (Kramell,  Zeitschr.  f. 
Vet.,  1901).  On  the  other  hand,  milk  cans  and  other  small  vessels 
are  surely  disinfected  with  Hve  steam  under  moderate  pressure 
(Junack,  Monatshefte  f.  prakt.  Tierheilk.,  1904).  The  addition 
of  a  slight  quantity  of  a  chemical  disinfectant  increases  the  effec- 
tiveness of  steam  considerably;  hides  and  leather  articles  (saddles) 
which  will  only  bear  steam  at  70°  C.  are  disinfected  in  a  relatively 
short  time  by  steam  at  70**  C.  containing  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  for- 
maldehyde, even  anthrax  spores  being  destroyed  in  5  minutes 
(von  Esmarch,  Hygien.  Rundschau,  12  Bd.). 

Cold  cannot  be  used  for  disinfection.  Very  low  temperatures 
(  —  100°  C.)  do  not  destroy  anthrax  spores.  Even  the  bacteria  of 
fowl  cholera,  which  are  rather  easily  destroyed,  resist  a  tempera- 
ture of  —  4°C. 

Mechanical  Disinfectants. — 1.  Burial  is  a  very  important 
method  of  disposing  of  infected  carcasses,  cadaver  parts,  manure, 
etc.  (see  the  regulations  for  anthrax,  rabies,  glanders  and  lung 
plague).  Bacteriological  investigations  have  shown  that  the 
earth  is  free  from  bacteria  at  a  depth  of  5  feet,  provided  the 
excavation  is  not  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  houses,  stables, 
manure  pits,  wells,  etc.,  and  does  not  reach  the  ground  water. 
Most  of  the  pathogenic  bacteria,  except  anthrax  spores  and  tuber- 
cle bacilli,  die  very  soon  in  buried  cadavers.  Anthrax  spores, 
however,  retain  their  virulence  many  years  and  tubercle  bacilli 
for  several  months  (cholera  and  typhoid  fever  bacilli  in  human 
bodies  die  in  2  to  3  weeks  after  burial).  Investigations  have  shown 
that  the  earth  of  cemeteries  contains  no  more  bacteria  than  the  earth 
of  cultivated  fields  at  an  equal  depth.  On  account  of  the  possibility 
of  buried  spores  being  disseminated  (earth  worms,  moles) ,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  anthrax  carcasses  be  buried  in  cemented  pits. 

2.  Drying  in  the  air  has  a  very  slight  disinfectant  action.  An- 
thrax spores  retain  their  virulence  in  dry  places  for  years,  and  most  of 
the  more  readily  destroyed  bacteria  die  only  after  several  weeks. 

3.  Light  assists  the  disinfectant  action  of  the  antiseptics. 
Spores  appear  to  be  more  susceptible  to  light  than  the  bacilli. 
Anthrax  spores  are  killed  by  sunlight  in  5  hours,  while  the  bacilli 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  209 

are  destroyed  only  after  30  hours  (Arloing,  Roux).  Tubercle 
bacilli  are  killed  by  direct  sunlight  in  a  few  hours  and  by  diffuse 
daylight  in  a  few  days  (R.  Koch).  The  contagion  of  rinderpest  is 
affected  in  the  same  manner  (Theiler).  Direct  sunlight  exerts  a 
powerful  disinfectant  action  upon  coli  bacilli  and  the  organisms 
of  swine  plague,  hog  cholera,  swine  erysipelas  and  fowl  cholera, 
while  diffuse  daylight  also  possesses  disinfectant  properties  but 
in  less  degree  (Neumark,  Dissertation,  1907).  Perhaps  this 
explains  the  milder  course  and  less  frequent  occurrence  of  some 
of  the  infectious  diseases  in  the  summer  (contagious  pneumonia). 
From  the  foregoing  it  follows  that  the  admission  of  light  into  dark 
stables  and  the  airing  of  blankets  essentially  assist  disinfection. 

Other  mechanical  methods  include:  whitewashing  or  painting 
(lime,  calcium  chloride,  tar,  varnish,  paint,  lacquer),  which 
covers  and  fixes  the  bacteria  and  prevents  their  increase;  scouring, 
cleansing,  washing,  sweeping,  wiping,  rubbing  (rubbing  the  car- 
pet with  bread),  exclusion  of  air  (closing  a  room  before  disinfec- 
tion) and  above  all  washing  with  soap.  The  latter  is  sufficient 
in  many  cases,  especially  for  infectious  material  that  is  readily 
destroyed. 

3.  DISINFECTION  OF  WOUNDS 

The  Most  Important  Antiseptics  for  Wounds. — ^The  general 
statements  already  made  (p.  170)  are  to  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  choice  and  judgment  of  the  individual  antiseptics 
employed  in  the  treatment  of  wounds.  In  the  first  place,  atten- 
tion is  to  be  given  to  the  different  disinfectant  values  of  the  individ- ' 
ual  antiseptics  and  to  the  resistance  of  the  microorganisms  con- 
cerned m  wound  infection  to  these  agents.  As  already  mentioned 
on  page  175,  the  resistance  of  these  organisms  lies  about  midway 
between  that  of  the  anthrax  and  black  leg  spores,  which  are  diffi- 
cult to  kill,  and  that  of  the  easily  destroyed  anthrax  and  swine 
erysipelas  bacilli.  The  staphylococci  and  streptococci  especially 
cannot  be  destroyed  by  the  milder  disinfectants,  but  require  the 
more  powerful  antiseptics  (corrosive  sublimate,  creolin,  lysol, 
tannoform,  carbolic  acid,  tincture  of  iodine,  aluminum  acetate, 
silver  nitrate).  Other  points  to  be  considered  are  the  degree  of 
14 


210        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

toxicity  of  the  disinfectant,  its  irritant  effect  upon  the  wound,  its 
decomposition  by  the  wound  secretions,  the  duration  of  its  action 
upon  the  wound,  the  concentration  and  form,  the  price,  and  the 
stage  of  healing  in  the  wound.  In  general,  the  rule  to  follow  is  to 
choose  the  most  effective  disinfectant  which  can  be  used  in  solu- 
tion or  in  powder  and  which  at  the  same  time  is  the  least  irritant, 
the  least  liable  to  decomposition,  the  least  poisonous  and  the 
cheapest;  and  to  apply  it  to  the  wound  as  eariy  as  possible  (tanno- 
form!)  and  to  permit  it  to  operate  as  long  as  may  be  practicable. 
A  thorough  cleansing  should  precede  the  disinfection.  The  aseptic 
treatment  of  wounds  has  already  been  discussed  on  page  171. 
In  regard  to  the  most  important  antiseptics  for  the  treatment  of 
wounds,  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 

Hydrargyri  chloridum  corrosivum.  Corrosive  sublimate.  A 
powerful  but  poisonous  antiseptic.  A  1  to  1000  solution  quickly 
destroys  all  microorganisms  concerned  in  wound  infection.  It 
may  be  used  as  a  wound  disinfectant  on  all  animals  except  rumi- 
nants. It  is  especially  poisonous  for  cattle  and  it  should  not  be 
used  on  these  animals.  In  contact  with  albuminous  wound  secre- 
tions, corrosive  sublimate  is  in  part  precipitated  in  the  form  of 
albuminate  of  mercury  and  in  part  decomposed  (formation  of 
mercuric  oxy chlorides) .  These  decompositions,  however,  do  not 
essentially  affect  the  antiseptic  action  of  the  sublimate  qualita- 
tively; and,  furthermore,  they  can  be  prevented  by  the  addition 
of  sodium  chloride,  hydrochloric  acid  or  acetic  acid.  The  advan- 
tages of  corrosive  sublimate  are  its  strong  disinfectant  properties, 
its  lack  of  odor,  cheapness  and  convenience  (sublimate  tablets). 
Its  disadvantages  are  its  high  toxicity,  especially  for  cattle;  its 
strong  irritant  action,  especially  upon  the  mucous  membranes  of 
the  eye  (ophthalmology)  and  uterus  (obstetrics),  and  its  rapid 
formation  of  an  amalgam  with  instruments. 

*Creolin,  *lysol  ^  and  other  cresol  compounds.  The  antiseptic 
action  of  cresol  preparations  is  very  powerful  and  rapid.  A  3  per 
cent,  solution  destroys  all  of  the  organisms  concerned  in  wound  infec- 
tion immediately.    The  disinfectant  action  of  cresol  is  ten  times 

I*  The  official  liquor  cresolis  compositus  is  very  similar.l 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  211 

stronger  than  that  of  carbolic  acid;  it  possesses  deodorizing  prop- 
ties  and  is  relatively  non-toxic.  Its  disadvantages  are  the  odor, 
the  irritant  effect  of  strong  solutions  upon  the  mucous  membranes 
and  the  partial  turbidity  of  the  solutions. 

Phenol.  Carbolic  acid  has  a  relatively  good  antiseptic  action. 
A  3  per  cent,  solution  kills  most  of  the  organisms  concerned  in 
wound  infection  after  prolonged  action.  It  is  less  effective,  how- 
ever, against  tetanus  bacilli,  rabies  virus,  tubercle  bacilli  and 
anthrax  spores.  Castration  clamps  transmitted  tetanus  18  months 
after  they  were  infected,  although  they  were  immersed  for  five 
minutes  in  a  4  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution.  The  advantages 
of  carbolic  acid  are  that  it  does  not  decompose  and  is  constant 
in  its  composition.  The  disadvantages  are  the  odor,  high  price  and 
the  irritant  and  poisonous  properties,  the  latter  especially  for  cats. 

lodoformum.  Iodoform.  An  excellent,  mild  antiseptic,  which 
stimulates  granulation;  may  be  employed  in  the  form  of  ether 
solution  (1  :  5-10).  The  disadvantages  are  its  odor,  high  price, 
toxicity  for  dogs  (licking)  and  insolubility  in  water.  Similar 
preparations,  which  are  much  more  expensive  and  therefore  not 
adapted  to  veterinary  practice,  are  *loretin,  sozoiodol,  *losophan, 
*iodophen,  *europhen,  *aristol,  *iodoformin,  *iodoformogen,  iodol, 
*iodine  trichloride  (very  unstable),  and  others. 

*Tannoform.  The  best  remedy  known  at  this  time  for  form- 
ing aseptic  scabs,  and  also  a  dry  antiseptic.  Applied  early  to 
fresh  wounds,  it  prevents  suppuration  (healing  under  a  scab). 
It  is  to  be  preferred  to  iodoform,  especially  for  horses,  on  account 
of  its  stronger  antiseptic  action,  lack  of  odor  and  lower  cost.  The 
other  condensation  products  of  formaldehyde,  *glutol,  *amylo- 
form,  etc.,  are  more  expensive  and  less  constant  in  their  action 
than  tannoform.  Liquor  formaldehydi  in  1  to  2  per  cent,  solution 
is  a  strong  disinfectant  but  very  irritant  to  wounds;  in  concen- 
tration it  is  a  strong  caustic  (caution!). 

Tinctura  iodi.  Tmcture  of  iodine  has  been  employed  recently  to 
disinfect  the  skin  in  place  of  the  older  and  more  complicated  process 
(method  of  Grossich) ,  being  simply  painted  on  the  field  of  operation. 

Argenti  nitras.    Nitrate  of  silver  is  an  excellent  wound  remedy. 


212         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

It  possesses  a  high  disinfection  value  (a  1  to  1000  solution  destroys 
pus  cocci),  is  an  important  regulator  of  abnormal  granulations  and 
covers  the  wound  with  a  scab  (silver  scab) .  This  is  also  true  of  the 
other  very  expensive  silver  preparations  (*actoI,  *itrol,  *protargol). 

*Aluminum  acetas.  Acetate  of  aluminum.  An  excellent,  non- 
poisonous  antiseptic  in  2-8  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  (also  con- 
tained in  Burow's  mixture  2);  preferred  on  account  of  its  cheapness 
to  the  more  expensive  substitutes  *alumnol,  *tannal,  *gallal, 
*sozal,  *boral,  *saluniinal,  *kutol,  etc. 

Alcohol.  An  important  disinfectant  for  the  hands  of  the 
operator  and  for  the  skin  of  the  operation  field;  acts  best  in  50 
per  cent,  solution  in  water  or  sublimate  solution  (absolute  alcohol 
has  only  a  weak  antiseptic  action).  Soap  spirit^  is  also  recom- 
mended. The  alcoholic  tincture  of  aloes  [tinctura  aloes]  is  an  ex- 
cellent antiseptic  and  stimulant  to  granulation  for  old  wounds. 

Acidum  salicylicum,  Salicyclic  acid  is  a  very  mild  antiseptic, 
but  is  non-toxic,  odorless  and  non-irritant;  used  especially  in 
ophthalmology,  also  to  wash  out  mtemal  organs.  Thioform 
(dithiosalicylate  of  bismuth)  is  recommended  as  a  substitute  for 
iodoform,  especially  because  it  is  odorless  and  non-toxic  (but  is 
very  expensive). 

Bismuth  salts.  Like  tannoform,  these  are  employed  as  desic- 
cant,  astringent,  dry  antiseptics,  but  are  very  expensive.  Those 
most  frequently  used  are  bismuthi  subnitras,  subsalicylas,  sub- 
gallas  (dermatol),and  dithiosalicylas  (thioform), and  *airol  (iodized 
dermatol).  The  latter  in  the  form  of  airol  paste  ^  is  an  excellent 
substitute  for  dressings  and  bandages  for  wounds;  it  is  aseptic, 
non-irritant,  easily  applied,  adhesive,  plastic  and  dries  quickly. 

Acidum  boricum.  Boric  acid  is  a  mild,  non-toxic,  odorless 
antiseptic  without  pronounced  action  (ophthalmology).  Sodii 
boras,  *magnesii  boras,  *boral,  *antipyonin,  *rotterin,  *anti- 
septin,  *borol  and  other  preparations  containing  boric  acid  act  in 
the  same  manner. 

[»  Alum  5  parts,  lead  acetate  10  parts,  water  250  parts.] 

[•  Equal  parts  of  green  soap  and  alcohol.) 

[*  Airol,  glycerin  and  acacia,  each  1  part,  argilla  2  parts.] 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  213 

Zinci  chloridum.  Chloride  of  zinc  is  a  caustic,  alterative  anti- 
septic (2  to  8  per  cent,  solution)  of  relatively  weak  disinfection 
power  (a  regulator  of  abnormal  granulations). 

Potassii  permanganas.  Permanganate  of  potassium  is  a  mild 
antiseptic;  specific  against  snake  bites  and  rabies  virus. 

Camphora.  Camphor  is  a  powerful  antiseptic,  especially  for 
*' flabby"  granulations  and  phlegmonous,  ulcerative  and  necrotic 
processes  (camphor  spirit  bandage).  Oleixm  terebinthinae,  tere- 
binthina  (old  hoof  remedy),  thjrmol,  oleum  eucalypti,  balsamum 
peruvianum  and  other  ethereal  oils  act  in  the  same  manner. 

Pix  liquida.  Tar.  An  excellent  antiseptic,  especially  for 
wounds  on  the  hoof  and  claws;  wood  tar  is  better  than  coal  tar. 

Liquor  chlori  compositus.  Chlorine  water.  A  strong  antiseptic; 
specific  against  rabies  virus  and  snakebites;  used  in  ophthalmology. 

*Pyoctanin.    A  powerful  antiseptic.    Disadvantage:  blue  stain. 

4.  INTERNAL  ANTISEPTICS 

A  number  of  infectious  diseases  may  be  effectively  combated 
by  the  internal  use  of  antiseptics.  The  antiseptics  used  for  this 
purpose  include  some  of  the  specifics :  salicylic  acid,  the  principal 
remedy  in  acute  articular  rheumatism;  quinine,  the  specific  for 
malaria;  mercury,  salvarsan  and  iodine  as  specifics  for  syphilis 
of  man,  salvarsan  and  atoxyl  as  specifics  against  trypanosomes  and 
spirilla,  and  salvarsan  in  contagious  pneumonia  of  horses  ("Ther- 
apia  sterilisans  magna  ") ;  also  creolin,  which  is  very  effective  against 
anthrax  in  cattle  and  horses;  creosote,  as  an  internal  remedy  in 
tuberculosis;  calomel,  salicyclic  acid,  bismuth  salts,  tannin  and 
boric  acid  as  intestinal  disinfectants  in  dysentery,  influenza, 
canine  distemper,  swine  erysipelas,  fowl  cholera  and  mycotic  and 
infectious  inflammations  of  the  intestines;  and  tar  and  oil  of 
turpentine  in  infectious  and  parasitic  affections  (lung  worm  dis- 
ease) of  the  respiratory  tract.  Infectious  materials  in  the  blood 
are  also  destroyed  through  serum  therapy  (see  the  chapter  on 
protective  vaccination  and  methods  of  iromunization).  In  internal 
antisepsis,  even  more  than  with  external  antisepsis,  care  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  a  general  poisoning  of  the  body. 


214        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

5.  THE  CONSERVATION  OF  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 
Methods  of  Conservation. — The  conservation  of  organic 
animal  substances  has  for  its  purpose  the  prevention  of  the  decom- 
position, putrefaction  and  fermentation  processes  which  occur,  as 
a  rule,  after  the  death  of  the  animal  organs.  This  is  accomplished 
by  the  destruction  of  the  microorganisms  concerned  in  the  de- 
composition and  fermentation  processes  and  by  preventing  the 
access  and  development  of  additional  organisms.  In  most  cases 
the  conservation  concerns  meat  and  milk;  in  addition,  cadavers, 
hides  and  other  parts  of  the  carcass  also  require  attention.  Since 
the  microorganisms  concerned  can  only  multiply  in  an  atmosphere 
with  a  certain  oxygen  content  and  a  certain  amount  of  moisture, 
within  certain  temperature  limits,  and  upon  proper  nutritive 
media,  they  may  be  destroyed  in  different  ways  in  addition  to  the 
employment  of  antiseptics. 

1.  The  conserving  agents  which  act  antiseptically  correspond 
essentially  with  the  disinfectants.  Usually,  several  substances 
are  used  together  to  increase  the  conserving  action.  A  distinction 
must  be  made  between  the  non-toxic  agents,  which  can  be  used  to 
conserve  meat  and  milk,  and  the  toxic  substances,  which  serve  to 
preserve  parts  of  cadavers.  The  non-toxic  meat  and  milk  preser- 
vatives are:  sodium  chloride,  potassium  nitrate  (salting,  pickling), 
sodium  phosphate,  sodium  acetate,  vinegar,  sugar,  glycerin, 
smoking  and  hydrogen  peroxide.  The  mixtures  of  conserving 
agents  must  not  contain  toxic  substances  or  those  which  are  not 
entirely  non-toxic  (boric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  sulphurous  acid, 
fluoride  of  soda,  ammonium  acetate,  forrhaliQ,  potassium  per- 
manganate). Poisonous  preservatives  for  parts  of  cadavers  are 
corrosive  sublimate,  arsenic,  hydrocyanic  acid,  creosote,  carbolic 
acid,  methyl  alcohol,  chloroform,  ether,  acetone,  chloral,  copper 
sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  iron  sulphate,  zinc  chloride,  copper  chloride, 
aluminum  chloride,  iron  chloride,  alum  and  hyposulphites. 
Wickersheimer's  conserving  fluid  for  cadavers  (arsenic  10  grams, 
sodium  chloride  25  grams,  potassium  nitrate  12  grams,  potash  60 
grams,  methyl  alcohol  1  liter,  glycerin  4  liters,  water  10  liters) 
is  well  known. 


DISINFECTANTS.    ANTISEPTICS  '  215 

2.  Exclusion  of  air.  This  very  simple  method  of  conservation 
is  usually  used  in  connection  with  previous  heating  (sterilization, 
pasteurization).  The  simple  exclusion  of  air  is  obtained  by  the 
different  paints  (lacquer,  oil  paints,  tar,  sealing  wax,  resin)  and 
by  the  appHcation  of  a  layer  of  fat,  oil  or  sugar  (sardines,  goose- 
liver  pie,  sweet  conserves).  Cotton  and  asbestos  stoppers  prevent 
the  entrance  of  the  bacteria  contained  in  the  air;  this  method  is 
used  principally  in  bacteriological  technique.  Finally,  the  air  can 
be  expelled  by  carbon  dioxide  (canned  meat). 

3.  High  and  low  temperatures  have  a  conserving  action  when 
they  are  considerably  above  or  below  4  to  45°  C,  the  optimum 
temperatures  necessary  for  the  development  of  microorganisms. 
Sterilization  is  the  process  of  heating  to  100°  C.  or  over.  Pasteur- 
ization is  the  process  of  heating  to  65  to  100°  C.  Temperatures 
of  high  degree  in  the  form  of  boiling-heat  (frequently  with  simul- 
taneous or  subsequent  exclusion  of  the  air),  hot  air  and  live  steam 
are  essentially  more  effective  than  lower  temperatures;  they  are 
especially  used  in  the  preparation  of  canned  meats  (corned  beef). 
Lower  temperatures  in  the  form  of  freezing  or  storage  in  cooling- 
rooms,  ice  cellars  and  refrigerators  are  less  effective  because  the 
spores  are  not  destroyed  but  only  hindered  in  their  development 
and  also  because  some  of  the  bacteria  are  only  temporarily  be- 
numbed. Substances  conserved  in  this  manner  therefore  undergo 
decomposition  very  rapidly  when  they  are  removed  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  cold,  since  the  microorganisms  contained  in  them 
immediately  begin  to  multiply.  This  has  been  the  experience  with 
the  cold-storage  rooms  in  slaughter  houses  and  with  the  over- 
sea transportation  of  meat. 

4.  Withdrawal  of  moisture  is  attained  by  drying,  either 
through  the  use  of  the  sun's  heat  (codfish)  or  through  artificial 
heat  (carna  pura,  meat  meal).  In  the  preparation  of  meat  meal, 
the  meat,  after  the  removal  of  the  fat  and  bones,  is  finely  chopped 
and  dried  in  an  oven  at  60°  C,  after  which  it  is  finely  powdered 
and  enclosed  in  cans.  The  so-called  condensed  milk  is  also  pre- 
pared by  withdrawing  water  (evaporated  to  one-fourth  the  volume), 
and  sugar  is  added  to  better  preserve  it. 


ANTIDOTES 

Synonyms:    Antitoxics,  antagonistics,  antagonists. 

Classification. — Medicines  which  are  employed  in  different 
poisonings  are  called  antidotes.  They  are  of  different  kinds  and 
operate  in  different  ways.  The  following  groups  may  be  distin- 
guished: (l)  The  mechanical  or  physical  antidotes;  (2)  the  chem- 
ical antidotes;  (3)  the  physiological  (dynamic,  organic,  consti- 
tutional and  empirical)  antidotes  or  antagonists,  and  (4)  the 
S3^ptomatic  method  of  treating  poisoning. 

1.  The  physical  or  mechanical  antidotes  operate  in  a  purely 
mechanical  way  by  removing  the  poison  from  the  body:  emetics, 
cathartics,  diuretics,  diaphoretics,  sialagogues,  washing  out  the 
stomach  (horse,  dog),  bleeding,  transfusion,  artificial  respiration; 
or  by  enveloping  the  poison  and  preventing  its  absorption  or 
contact  with  the  mucous  membrane:  protective  antidotes  (albu- 
min, milk,  oil,  mucilaginous  substances). 

Of  special  practical  importance  are  the  emetics,  which  are 
immediately  administered  to  the  proper  animals  (dogs,  swine  and 
cats)  in  all  fresh  cases  of  poisoning.  The  most  important  emetics 
are  apomorphine  (dogs,  0.002-0.01, gr.  l/40  to  l/8;  cats,  0.02-0.05, 
gr.  M  to  ^,  subcutaneously),  veratrin  (swine,  0.02-0.03,  gr.  34 
to  1/3,  subcutaneously),  veratrum  alba  (swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv  toxxx; 
dogs,  0.1-0.2,  gr.  1/8  to  34,  per  os  or  in  clyster),  ipecac  (swine  and 
dogs,  1-3,  grs.  XV  to  xlv;  cats,  0.25-0.75,  grs.  iij  to  xj),  tartar 
emetic  (swine,  1-2,  grs.  xv  to  xxx;  dogs,  0.1-0.3,  grs.  iss  to  iv; 
cats,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij),  copper  sulphate  in  phosphorus 
poisoning  (swine,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij  to  xv;  dogs,  0.1-0.5,  grs.  iss  to  vij; 
cats,  0.05-0.2,  grs.  %  to  iij),  zinc  sulphate  (swine,  0.5-1,  grs.  vij 
to  XV ;  dogs,  0.1-0.3,  grs.  iss  to  iv),and  finally  the  household  emetics, 
sodium  chloride  (dogs,  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls),  mustard  (dogs,  1  to  2 
teaspoonfuls  in  a  glass  of  warm  water),  snuflf  (dogs,  a  pinch  in 
a  tablespoonful  of  water),  etc.  Of  the  cathartics,  eserine  (0.05- 
0.1,  grs.  %  to  iss,  for  horses)  and  arecoline  (0.05-0.08,  gr.  M  to  1, 
for  horses)  are  especially  suitable  on  account  of  their  rapid  action ; 
others  are  aloes  (horses,  25-50,  5vj  to  xii;  cattle,  50-75,  5  iss  to 
216 


ANTIDOTES  217 

ijss);  castor  oil  (horses,  250-500,  Oss  to  i;  cattle,  500-1000,  Oi  to 
ij ;  sheep  and  goats,  50-250,  3  iss  to  viij ;  swine,  50-100,  5  iss  to  iij ; 
dogs,  15-60,  5ss  to  ij;  cats  and  fowl,  10-30,  5 ijss  to  Bi),  which, 
however,  is  to  be  avoided  in  phosphorus,  arsenic  and  cantharides 
poisoning  (solution  of  the  poison) ;  calomel  (swine,  1-4,  grs.  xv  to 
5i;  dogs,  2-4,  grs.  xxx  to  3i;  cats  and  chickens,  0.1,  grs.  iss); 
Glauber's  and  Epsom  salts  (in  lead  poisoning,  also  a  chemical  anti- 
dote). The  diuretics,  diaphoretics  and  sialagogues  have  a  much 
weaker  evacuating  action  and  are  therefore  employed  only  in 
chronic  poisonings.  The  protective  antidotes  are  used  principally 
in  poisonings  by  caustics  to  protect  the  gastric  mucous  membrane 
and  to  prevent  absorption.  Those  used  most  frequently  are  milk, 
albumin  (egg  albumin  alone  or  shaken  up  with  water),  mucilages 
(linseed,  barley,  oat  and  quince  mucilage,  acacia,  decoctions  of 
althaea  root,  mallow  leaves  and  salep,  tragacanth  mucilage),  fats 
and  oils  (lard,  butter,  peanut  oil,  olive  oil,  rape  oil,  poppy-seed  oil, 
almond  oil,  castor  oil,  emulsions).  The  fatty  oils,  however,  are 
contraindicated  in  phosphorus  and  cantharides  poisoning  because 
they  promote  the  resorption  of  these  substances;  this  is  also  true 
of  milk  or  any  compound  which  contains  fat. 

2.  The  chemical  antidotes  prevent  poisoning  by  decomposing 
the  poison  or  by  changing  it  into  a  compound  which  is  non-toxic 
or  less  poisonous.  The  simplest  example  of  a  chemical  antidote 
is  presented  by  the  caustic  alkalies  and  acids,  which  in  combining 
lose  their  opposing  alkaline  and  acid  characteristics  and  form 
neutral  salts  which  are  not  caustic  (potash  lye,  soda  lye,  caustic 
lime,  ammonia,  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  of  potas- 
sium, and  soap  on  the  one  hand,  and  sulphuric,  hydrochloric, 
nitric,  acetic  and  oxalic  acids  on  the  other  hand).  This  group  also 
includes  sodium  chloride,  the  specific  antidote  for  silver  nitrate, 
which  it  transforms  into  silver  chloride  (the  administration  of 
sodium  chloride  in  corrosive  sublimate  poisonmg  is  harmful 
because  it  promotes  the  resorption  of  the  sublimate);  iron,  iron 
hydroxide  and  iron  oxide,  the  antidotes  for  arsenic  (formation  of 
arsenate  of  iron,  which  is  only  slightly  soluble),  hydrocyanic  acid, 
mercury  and  copper  salts;  potassium  ferrocyanide,  the  antidote 


218        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

for  copper  poisoning  (non-poisonous  ferrocyanide  of  copper)  and 
for  caustic  iron  salts,  e.g.,  iron  chloride  (formation  of  ferrocyanide 
of  iron);  copper  salts,  the  important  antidote  for  phosphorus 
poisoning  (formation  of  insoluble  phosphorus  copper),  magnesia 
oxide  and  magnesia  carbonate,  the  antidotes  for  acids  (formation 
of  salts  of  magnesia),  arsenic  and  metallic  salts  (decomposition); 
iodine  and  the  iodides,  the  antidotes  for  the  alkaloids  in  general 
(precipitation)  and  for  chronic  metallic  poisonings  (formation  of 
metaUic  iodides,  which  are  more  soluble  and  therefore  more  readily 
eHminated  from  the  body);  potassium  bromide,  which  combines 
with  iodine  and  iodoform,  forming  potassium  iodide;  sulphur  and 
potassium  sulphide  (hydrogen  sulphide),  antidotes  for  mercury, 
lead,  copper,  tartar  emetic  and  arsenical  poisonings  (formation 
of  insoluble  metallic  sulphides);  sulphuric  acid  and  its  salts, 
specific  antidotes  for  lead  poisoning  (formation  of  insoluble  lead 
sulphate),  carbolic  acid  poisoning  (formation  of  non-poisonous 
potassium  sulphocarbolate),  calcium  poisoning  (formation  of 
plaster-of-Paris)  and  barium  poisoning  (formation  of  barium  sul- 
phate); the  calcium  salts  (lime  water,  calcium  carbonate,  chalk, 
snail  shells,  oyster  shells,  egg  shells,  marble,  sepia  stones,  sugar 
lime),  antidotes  for  oxalic  acid  poisoning  (calcium  oxalate  is 
insoluble  and  consequently  not  poisonous);  tannic  acid  and  the 
plants  which  contain  it  (oak  bark,  cortex  salicis,  salvia  leaves, 
coffee,  tea,  acorns,  nutgall,  ink,  cinchona,  catechu,  rhatany  root, 
tormentilla,  walnut  tree  leaves),  important  antidotes  for  poison- 
ing by  alkaloids  and  glucosides  (formation  of  slightly  soluble  or 
insoluble  tannates),  also  for  poisoning  by  the  metaUic  salts,  espe- 
cially tartar  emetic,  lead  acetate,  silver  chloride  and  iron  sulphate 
(formation  of  metallic  tannates);  ammonia,  chlorine  and  potas- 
sium permanganate,  local  antidotes  for  snake  bites  and  insect 
stings;  old  oil  of  turpentine  and  ozone  water,  antidotes  for  phos- 
phorus (oxidation  to  phosphoric  acid),  albumin,  antidote  for  the 
metallic  salts  (formation  of  metallic  albuminates),  caustic  acids 
(formation  of  serum  albumins)  and  chlorine,  bromine  and  iodine 
poisoning;  gelatin  and  gum,  antidotes  for  metallic  poisonings 
(sublimate  poisoning),  alum  and  tannic  acid  poisoning  (formation  of 


ANTIDOTES  219 

precipitates);  fatty  oils,  antidotes  for  poisoning  by  alkalies  and 
acids  (formation  of  soap) ;  starch,  antidote  against  iodine  (blue 
color),  and  animal  charcoal,  antidote  for  alkaloids  and  metals. 

3.  The  physiological  or  dynamic  antidotes  are  not  directed 
against  the  poison  itself  but  against  its  action  (antagonists),  and 
are  administered  for  the  purpose  of  producing  an  action  which 
will  counteract  the  effect  of  the  poison  (stimulation — paralysis). 
A  distinction  must  be  made  between  a  single,  or  simple,  and  a 
multiple,  or  mutual  antagonism.  The  antagonism  is  single  when 
the  one  poison  only  suppresses  but  does  not  reverse  the  action  of 
the  other;  it  is  multiple  when  a  reciprocal  or  mutual  suppression 
takes  place.  We  also  speak  of  a  true  (direct)  and  an  apparent 
antagonism,  depending  upon  whether  both  poisons  act  upon  one 
and  the  same  organ  (nervous  system,  muscles,  glands)  or  upon 
different  organs;  curare,  for  instance,  is  only  an  indirect  antag- 
onist of  strychnine  because  it  does  not  act  upon  the  spinal  cord, 
as  does  strychnine,  but  upon  the  peripheral  nerves  of  the  muscles. 
The  occurrence  of  a  true  multiple  antagonism  is  in  general  question- 
able. A  paralyzing  antidote  like  atropine  can,  it  is  true,  overcome 
the  stimulant  action  of  another  poison,  e.g.j  the  action  of  eserine 
upon  the  oculomotor  nerve  (mydriasis,  myosis),  but  on  the  other 
hand  a  paralysis  of  the  oculomotor  nerve  (mydriasis)  produced  by 
atropine  cannot  be  overcome  by  eserine  (myotic).  The  important 
physiological  antidotes  are:  (a)  Atropine  and  hyoscine  (scopo- 
lamine) as  antidotes  against  morphine,  chloroform  and  chloral 
hydrate.  The  antagonism  is  multiple  but  in  part  indirect.  The 
paralytic  action  of  morphine  on  the  brain  is  overcome  directly  by 
the  psychic  stimulation  produced  by  the  atropine;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  paralytic  effect  of  the  morphine  on  the  heart  is  overcome 
by  the  stimulant  action  of  the  atropine  indirectly,  the  atropine 
stimulating  the  nerve  centres  of  the  heart,  while  morphine  para- 
lyzes the  heart  muscle  itself,  (b)  Atropine  as  an  antidote  against 
pilocarpine,  eserine,  arecoline,  muscarine  and  nicotine  poisoning, 
(c)  Potassium  bromide,  chloral  hydrate,  chloroform  and  ether  as 
antidotes  against  the  tetanies,  strychnine  and  picrotoxin.  (d)  Amyl 
nitrite  as  an  antagonist  against  the  vasoconstrictors,  suprarenin 


220        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

[adrenalin]  and  ergot.  Caffeine  as  an  antidote  against  morphine, 
chloroform  and  alcohol. 

4.  The  symptomatic  antidotes  are  used  to  treat  individual 
symptoms  of  poisonings.  Symptoms  of  paralysis  are  combated 
by  excitants  (camphor,  ether,  alcohol,  wine,  caffeine,  coffee,  tea, 
veratrin,  strychnine,  atropine,  scopolamine,  ammonia,  carbonate 
of  ammonia);  painful  colics  by  morphine  and  other  narcotics; 
diarrhoea  by  styptics;  constipation  by  laxatives;  persistent  vomit- 
ing by  opiates;  high  fever  by  antipyretics;  cramps  by  sedatives, 
and  subnormal  temperatures  by  caffeine. 

Antidotes  for  the  Different  Poisons. — ^Aconite.  Emetics,  tan- 
nic acid,  iodine,  animal  charcoal,  atropine,  digitalis,  artificial 
respiration,  excitants. 

Alcohol.  Coffee,  caffeine,  ammonia,  ammonium  carbonate, 
camphor,  atropine,  scopolamine,  cold  appUcations  to  the  head, 
warm  coverings. 

Alkalies,  caustic.  Vinegar,  dilute  acids  (hydrochloric,  sul- 
phuric, phosphoric,  tartaric  and  citric  acids),  fatty  oils,  milk, 
emulsions,  mucilaginous  substances,  morphine. 

Aloes.     Opium,  tannic  acid,  mucilaginous  substances. 

Alum.  Albumin,  milk,  gelatin  solution,  lime  water,  magnesium 
oxide,  ammonia,  laxatives. 

Ammonia.  Dilute  acids,  vinegar  vapor,  fats,  oils,  milk,  muci- 
laginous substances,  tracheotomy. 

Anilin.     Emetics,  laxatives,  excitants. 

Arecoline.    Atropine,  hyoscine  (scopolamine). 

Arsenic.  Emetics,  iron  preparations,  iron  hydrate  [ferri 
hydroxidum  cum  magnesii  oxido,  U.  S.  P.],  *ferric  saccharate, 
magnesium  oxide,  animal  charcoal,  sulphur,  liver  of  sulphur, 
sulphide  of  iron,  albumin,  milk,  mucilage,  excitants.  Alkalies  and 
fatty  oils  (castor  oil)  are  to  be  avoided. 

Atropine  (belladonna,  henbane,  stramonium).  Emetics,  tan- 
nic acid,  morphine,  pilocarpine,  eserine;  for  the  psychic  excite- 
ment, chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  sulphonal,  potassium  bromide. 

Barium.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid,  sodium  and  potassium  sul- 
phate, magnesium  sulphate,  emetics,  atropine. 


ANTIDOTES  221 

Brine.     Plenty  of  water,  mucilage,  oil,  excitants,  sedatives. 

Cantharides.  Mucilaginous  substances,  opium,  excitants;  no 
fatty  oils. 

Carbolic  acid.  Emetics,  wash  out  the  stomach,  sulphates, 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  soap  water,  sugar  lime,  albumin,  milk,  oil, 
excitants  (ether,  camphor,  caffeine,  hyoscine). 

Carbon  disulphide.    Fresh  air,  excitants. 

Carbon  monoxide.  Fresh  air,  inhalation  of  oxygen,  infusion 
of  physiological  salt  solution;  excitants,  artificial  respiration, 
stimulation  of  the  skin. 

Chick-pea.  Tracheotomy,  strychnine,  veratrin,  caffeine,  atro- 
pine, cutaneous  stimulation,  laxatives. 

Chlorine  and  calcium  chloride.  Sodium  or  magnesium  sub- 
sulphate,  inhalations  of  hydrogen  sulphide  and  ammonia  (diluted) ; 
internally,  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia;  albumin,  mucilage. 

Chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  or  ether.  Excitants,  especially 
atropine,  hyoscine  (scopolamine),  strychnine,  veratrin,  caffeine, 
ammonia,  ammonium  carbonate,  cutaneous  stimulation,  cold 
douches,  artificial  respiration. 

Chromic  acid.    Albumin,  magnesium  oxide,  excitants. 

Cocaine.    Tannic  acid,  iodine,  chloral  hydrate. 

Colchicum.  Emetics,  tannic  acid,  iodine  (LugoFs  solution), 
opium,  morphine,  mucilage,  warm  moist  coverings,  excitants. 

Conium.  Emetics,  laxatives,  veratrin,  strychnine,  caffeine, 
atropine,  ether,  camphor,  ammonium  carbonate,  tannic  acid. 

Convallaria.     Tannic  acid,  excitants,  camphor,  ether. 

Copper.  Laxatives,  emetics,  albumin,  potassium  ferrocyanide, 
powdered  iron,  magnesium  oxide,  animal  charcoal,  excitants. 

Com  cockle.    Laxatives,  tannic  acid,  mucilage,  excitants. 

Creosote.  Emetics,  mucilage,  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  sodium 
sulphate,  magnesium  sulphate,  soap,  excitants. 

Croton  oil.    Mucilage,  albumin,  opium,  excitants. 

Cystisus.    Emetics,  laxatives,  excitants. 

Darnel.  Laxatives,  ether,  camphor,  atropine,  caffeine,  cu- 
taneous stimulation. 

Digitalis.     Emetics,    tannic    acid,    camphor,  ether,  atropine, 


222        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

scopolamine,  caffeine,  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  wine,  cutaneous 
stimulation. 

Equisetum.  Laxatives,  camphor,  ether,  caffeine,  atropine, 
hyoscine  (scopolamine),  veratrin,  cutaneous  stimulation. 

Ergot.  Emetics,  laxatives,  chloral  hydrate,  amyl  nitrite, 
tannic  acid,  symptomatic  treatment. 

[Ether.    See  Chloroform.] 

Fungi.    Emetics,  laxatives,  excitancs,  syraptomatic  treatment. 

Glauber's  salt.     Mucilage,  opium,  camphor,  ether. 

Hellebore.    Tannic  acid,  opium,  excitants. 

Hydrochloric  acid.  Dilute  alkalies,  albumin,  mucilage,  oil, 
opium. 

Hydrocyanic  acid.  Emetics,  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  hydrogen 
peroxide,  potassium  permanganate,  cobalt  nitrate,  atropine,  arti- 
ficial respiration,  excitants,  cold  douches. 

Hydrogen  sulphide.  Fresh  air,  ether,  camphor,  inhalation  of 
chlorine,  excitants,  cutaneous  stimulation,  bleeding,  physiological 
salt  solution  subcutaneously. 

Illuminating  gas.  Fresh  air,  mhalation  of  oxygen,  cutaneous 
stimulation,  artificial  respiration. 

Insect  stings.  Wash  with  ammonia  water,  chlorine  water, 
alcohol,  lead  water. 

Iodine  and  iodoform.  Starch,  flour  water,  albumin,  potassium 
bromide,  sodium  bromide,  sodium  and  potassium  bicarbonate, 
sodium  hyposulphite,  excitants,  emetics,  laxatives. 

Lead.  Emetics,  laxatives,  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  sodium  sul- 
phate, potassium  sulphate,  magnesium  sulphate,  sulphur,  hydro- 
gen sulphide,  tannic  acid,  albumin,  milk,  symptomatic  treatment 
(opium,  morphine).    In  chronic  lead  poisoning,  potassium  iodide. 

Lupine.  Change  of  feed,  preparation  of  the  poisonous  lupines, 
dilute  acids  (no  alkalies!),  castor  oil. 

Male  fern.     Laxatives,  excitants. 

Mercurialis.    Emetics,  albumin,  milk,  opium,  tannic  acid. 

Mercury.  Albumin,  milk,  powdered  iron,  sulphur,  sulphur- 
ated potash,  hydrogen  sulphide,  magnesium  oxide,  symptomatic; 
treatment;  in  chronic  poisoning,  potassium  iodide. 


ANTIDOTES  223 

Mine  gas.  Fresh  air,  artificial  respiration,  cutaneous  stimu- 
lation, cold  douches,  excitants. 

Morphine.  Atropine,  hyoscine  (scopolamine),  caffeine,  coffee, 
tea,  cutaneous  stimulation. 

Muscarine.    Atropine,  hyoscine. 

Mushrooms.  Laxatives,  demulcents,  excitants,  cutaneous  stim- 
ulation, tannic  acid,  iodme  (atropine  in  poisoning  by  agaricus 
muscarius). 

Nicotine.  Laxatives,  tannic  acid,  iodine  solution,  animal 
charcoal,  excitants,  rumenotomy. 

Nitric  acid.     Dilute  alkalies,  albumin,  mucilage,  oil,  opium. 

Oleander.     Laxatives,  mucilage,  tannin,  excitants. 

Opium.    Atropine,  hyoscine,  caffeine,  laxatives,  excitants. 

Oxalic  acid.  Lime  water,  sugar  lime,  chalk,  magnesium  oxide, 
excitants,  diuretics. 

Petroleum.  Emetics,  cutaneous  stimulants,  ether,  camphor, 
wine,  ammonium  carbonate,  caffeine,  artificial  respiration. 

Phosphorus.  Emetics,  laxatives,  old  oil  of  turpentine,  copper 
sulphate,  copper  salts  in  general,  potassium  permanganate,  cobalt 
nitrate,  hydrogen  peroxide,  excitants,  infusion  of  physiological 
salt  solution;  fats  and  fatty  oils  are  to  be  avoided. 

Physostigmine.  Atropine,  hyoscine  (scopolamine),  sympto- 
matic treatment. 

Pilocarpine.    Atropine,  hyoscine,  agaricin,  excitants. 

Poppy  (wild).  Laxatives,  tannic  acid,  opium,  morphine,  chloral 
hydrate,  potassimn  bromide,  cold  shower  bath  upon  the  head, 
clysters. 

Potassium  chlorate.  Emetics,  infusion  of  physiological  salt 
solution,  excitants. 

Potassium  nitrate.  Mucilaginous  substances,  oil,  ether,  alco- 
hol, wine,  camphor,  ammonium  carbonate,  cutaneous  stimulation. 

Ptomaines.  Emetics,  laxatives,  tannic  acid,  iodine  water, 
animal  charcoal,  calomel,  ether,  camphor,  caffeine,  atropine, 
wine,  ammonia,  symptomatic  treatment. 

Ranunculus.     Emetics,  laxatives,  tannic  acid,  excitants. 

Sabina.     Mucilaginous,  demulcent  remedies,  opium,  morphine. 


224         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Santonin.  Emetics,  laxatives,  ether,  chloral  hydrate,  camphor, 
wine,  symptomatic  treatment. 

Silver  Nitrate.  Emetics,  albmnin,  sodimn  chloride,  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Snake  venom.  Locally,  chlorine  water,  calciiun  chloride  solu- 
tion, iron  chloride,  solutions  of  potassium  permanganate,  am- 
monia, carbolic  acid  or  creolin;  internally,  alcohol  in  large  doses, 
ether,  camphor,  atropine,  caffeine,  hyoscine  (scopolamine),  aro- 
matic spirit  of  ammonia. 

Sodium  chloride.  Plenty  of  water,  mucilage,  oil,  ether,  cam- 
phor, atropine,  caffeine,  antispasmodics  when  indicated. 

[Sodiimi  sulphate.    Mucilage,  opium,  camphor,  ether.] 

Solanine.    Tannic  acid,  laxatives,  excitants. 

Strychnine.  Chloral  hydrate,  chloroform,  potassium  bromide, 
ether,  sulphonal,  morphine,  artificial  respiration,  tannic  acid, 
iodine  water,  emetics,  irrigation  of  the  stomach. 

Sulphuric  acid.  Dilute  alkalies,  lime  water,  soda,  magnesium 
oxide,  chalk,  mucilage,  oil,  excitants. 

Tannic  acid.    Albumin,  gelatin,  mucilage,  laxatives. 

Tartar  emetic.  Tannic  acid,  sodium  carbonate,  dilute  acids, 
sulphur,  sulphurated  potash,  opium,  albumin,  mucilage,  excitants. 

Tobacco.    See  Nicotine. 

Turpentine  oil.     Mucilaginous  substances,  opium,  excitants. 

Veratrin.  Tannic  acid,  iodine,  opium,  sedatives,  demulcents, 
excitants. 

[Veratrum.    See  Hellebore.] 

Verdigris.  Albumm,  potassium  ferrocyanide,  powdered  iron, 
magnesium  oxide. 

Vinegar.  Soap  water,  soda  water,  chalk,  calcium  carbonate, 
magnesium  oxide,  milk,  excitants. 

Yew  tree.  Laxatives,  excitants,  atropine,  hyoscine,  caffeine, 
veratrin,  strychnine,  camphor,  ether,  alcohol,  ammonia,  iodine 
(Lugol's  solution). 

Zinc.  Albumin,  mucilage,  milk,  tannic  acid,  opium,  sodium 
and  potassium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate,  sulphurated  potassium, 
excitants. 


VACCINATION.     IMMUNIZATION.     INOCULATION 

1.  IMMUNITY,    MITIGATION,  AND  METHODS  OF 
INOCULATION 

Immunity. — It  was  early  observed  that  after  recovery  from 
certain  infectious  diseases  the  animal  or  human  body  was  pro- 
tected against  a  new  infection.  This  protection  against  infection 
is  called  immunity  and  the  animal  endowed  with  this  property  of 
insusceptibility  is  said  to  be  immune  or  refractory  to  a  specific 
infection.  There  are  different  varieties  of  immunity.  Species 
immunity  is  the  natural  insusceptibility  of  an  entire  animal 
species  to  certain  infectious  diseases.  For  example,  cattle  are 
immune  to  glanders,  the  horse  to  lung  plague  and  rinderpest,  the 
dog  and  the  cat  to  swine  erysipelas,  man  to  fowl  cholera,  the  rab- 
bit to  black-leg,  and  almost  all  species  of  animals  to  syphilis, 
scarlet  fever,  and  measles.  The  immunity  may  even  be  limited 
to  certain  breeds  of  a  species.  The  Algerian  sheep,  unlike  the 
other  breeds,  are  alleged  to  be  immune  to  anthrax.  The  German 
native  swine  and  the  Yorkshire  swine  are  much  less  susceptible 
to  erysipelas  than  the  other  breeds;  compared  with  field  mice, 
house  mice  and  white  mice  are  immune  to  tuberculosis  and  gland- 
ers. This  variety  of  immunity  is  due  to  certain  unknown  proper- 
ties peculiar  to  the  species  and  breeds.  Individual  immunity 
refers  to  the  insusceptibility  of  single  individuals  of  the  same 
animal  species  to  this  or  that  infection  to  which  the  members  of 
the  species  are  susceptible.  It  is  frequently  observed  in  an  out- 
break of  foot-and-mouth  disease  in  cattle,  or  of  contagious  pneu- 
monia, influenza  and  strangles  of  horses,  that  a  large  percentage 
of  the  animals  in  a  stable  remain  free  from  infection. 

Both  of  the  aforementioned  varieties  of  immunity,  species 
and  individual  immunity,  fall  under  the  general  term  of  natural 
15  225 


226        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

immunity,  which  is  also  called  inherited  inmiunity.  It  is  due  to 
an  inherited  special  property  of  the  body  cells  and  the  blood 
which  cannot  be  transmitted  to  other  animal  species.  An  acquired 
immunity,  on  the  other  hand,  is  established  after  an  animal  has 
passed  through  a  single  attack  of  a  certain  disease  and  lasts  for  a 
certain  time  (immunity  after  recovery).  This  variety  of  immunity 
may  follow  an  attack  of  pox,  anthrax,  lung  plague,  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  strangles,  canine  distemper,  black  leg,  swine  erysipelas, 
etc.,  and  also  scarlet  fever,  measles,  typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria 
of  man. 

The  acquired  immunity  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  presence  of 
specific  substances  in  the  body  (blood,  blood-serum)  which  reduce 
the  susceptibility  of  the  organism  to  the  infectious  agents  which 
caused  the  disease.  These  immunizing  substances  either  neutral- 
ize the  toxins  formed  by  the  invading  bacteria  (antitoxic  action, 
toxic  immunity)  or  they  destroy  the  pathogenic  bacteria  them- 
selves (bactericidal  action,  bacterial  immunity).  In  contrast  to 
natural  immunity,  acquired  immunity  may  be  transmitted  from 
one  animal  species  to  another  (pox  from  cattle  to  man). 

Finally,  two  varieties  of  acquired  immunity  are  recognized, 
the  active  and  the  passive.  The  active  immunity  is  acquired 
spontaneously  by  an  animal  in  passing  through  an  attack  of  the 
particular  disease  (natural  or  artificial  infection).  This  immunity 
can  be  increased  by  a  repetition  of  the  infection  and  can  usually 
be  made  more  continuous.  It  is  due  to  the  formation  in  the  blood- 
serum  of  antibodies  (antitoxins,  bacteriolysins,  bactericides).  The 
passive  immunity  is  produced  by  the  artificial  introduction  of  the 
antitoxins  (secondary  immunity).  It  is  only  of  short  duration 
because  the  antibodies  artificially  introduced  are  soon  used  and 
none  are  formed  to  replace  them,  as  occurs  in  active  immunity 
(inoculation  of  blood-serum  in  contagious  pneumonia  of  horses, 
foot-and-mouth  disease,  rinderpest,  and  swine  erysipelas) .  In  vacci- 
nation against  swine  erysipelas  the  swine  are  passively 
(serum  inoculation)  as  well  as  actively  (inoculation  of  bacilli) 
immunized. 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        227 

Practical  experience  having  taught  that  an  acquired  immunity 
often  existed,  attempts  were  early  made,  by  intentionally  intro- 
ducing infection,  to  produce  an  artificial  protection  against  a 
subsequent  infection.  This  variety  of  insusceptibility  is  called 
artificial  immunity  and  the  process  of  artificial  infection  is  termed 
vaccination.  The  first  vaccination  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
an  artificial  immunity  was  Jenner's  vaccination  of  man  with  cow 
pox  (1796).^  In  veterinary  medicine,  vaccinations  of  this  char- 
acter were  early  undertaken  (sheep  pox,  lung  plague,  rinderpest, 
foot-and-mouth  disease).  In  more  recent  times,  great  scientific 
and  practical  interest  has  been  manifested  in  the  production  by 
vaccination  of  artificial  immunity  against  anthrax  and  black  leg, 
rabies,  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  tuberculosis,  calf  cholera, 
chicken  cholera,  contagious  pneumonia  of  horses,  and  tetanus. 
Vaccination  has  become  a  valuable  method  of  combating  the  infec- 
tious diseases  and  is  a  species  of  internal  disinfectant  and  anti- 
dotal treatment. 

Causes  of  Immunity. — ^The  explanation  of  the  establishment 
of  immunity  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  difficult  therapeutical 
problems.  Only  in  recent  times  has  light  been  thrown  on  the 
intricate  question  by  histological,  bacteriological,  and  chemical 
inquiries.  But  a  conclusive  investigation  has  not  been  made,  nor 
has  an  entirely  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  causes  and  nature 
of  immunity  been  discovered. 

The  best-known  theories  at  this  time  are  the  serum  theory  of 
von  Behring  and  the  phagocytic  theory  of  Metschnikoff.  The 
first  has  his  supporters  chiefly  in  Germany,  the  latter  in  France. 
The  truth  may  indeed  lie  between  the  two;  namely,  that  the  serum 
and  the  phagocytes  both  act  as  protectives  of  the  body  against 
infectious  materials. 

*  Jenner's  celebrated  paper,  which  appeared  in  London  in  1798,  bore  the 
title:  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Variolse  Vaccinae,  a 
Disease  Discovered  in  Some  of  the  Western  Counties  of  England,  Particularly 
Gloucestershire,  and  Known  by  the  Name  of  Cowpox."  Jenner's  discovery 
has  become  the  greatest  therapeutic  fact  of  all  times. 


228        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

1.  The  serum  theory  of  von  Behring  locates  the  immunizing 
substances  in  the  cell-free  blood-serum.  Under  the  influence  of 
the  pathogenic  microorganisms  the  body  cells  produce  chemical 
substances  with  disinfectant  properties  (antibodies,  alexins,  im- 
mune proteins)  which  destroy  the  bacteria  (bactericidal  action) 
either  by  dissolving  (bacteriolysins),  clumping  (agglutinins),  or 
precipitating  (precipitins)  them,  or  which  neutralize  their  toxins 
(antitoxins)  or  facilitate  phagocytosis  (opsonins).  Artificially 
inoculating  the  antitoxins  in  the  form  of  the  blood-serum  of 
immune  animals  into  healthy  animals  produces  in  the  latter 
passive  immunity;  if  the  material  is  injected  into  diseased  animals 
recovery  occurs  (von  Behring's  law;  serum  therapy).  These  anti- 
toxins have  not  up  to  this  time  been  isolated  in  their  pure  state. 
According  to  von  Behring,  this  is  not  possible  principally  because 
they  are  not  an  antitoxin  material  but  an  antitoxic  force  similar 
to  the  magnetic  force  of  iron  (!).  Von  Behring  has  differentiated 
in  vaccination  the  isotherapeutic  (inoculation  of  the  bacteria 
themselves,  Jennerization,  cow  pox  vaccination,  vaccination 
against  tuberculosis  of  cattle)  and  the  homoeotherapeutic  principle 
(inoculation  of  the  specific  serum  in  diphtheria,  swine  erysipelas, 
tetanus)  (see  p.  22). 

Modifications  of  the  serum  theory  have  been  formulated  by 
Buchner,  Ehrlich,  Brieger,  Emmerlich,  Wassermann,  Lorenz,  and 
others.  According  to  Buchner,  the  antitoxic  body  is  an  enzyme 
with  a  ferment-like  action 

2.  The  phagocjrtic  theory  of  Metschnikoff  is,  on  the  contrary, 
a  cellular  theory,  which  places  the  immunizing  force  in  the  white 
blood-cells  (leucocjrtes,  phagocjrtes).  In  infectious  diseases,  these 
cells  remove  the  invading  infectious  agents  and  their  pathogenic 
products  from  the  blood  by  taking  them  within  the  cell  body 
(leucocytosis,  phagocytosis).  In  local  infection  (inflammation), 
they  leave  the  blood-vessels  in  the  form  of  wandering  cells  or  pus 
cells  in  order  to  take  up  the  infectious  material  (positive  chemo- 
tropism  or  positive  chemotaxis).  In  addition  to  this  higher  sus- 
ceptibility of  the  cells,  there  also  occurs  through  adaptation  an 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        229 

indifference  of  the  cells  toward  the  infectious  material,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  cells  avoid  the  pathogenic  bacteria  (negative 
chemotropism  or  chemotaxis).  "Living  cells,  governed  by  their 
susceptibility,  approach  pathogenic  microbes  or  flee  from  them; 
take  them  within  the  cell  body  or  allow  them  to  lie  free."  The 
Metschnikoff  theory  received  considerable  support  from  the  dis- 
covery by  Pfeffer  of  the  law  of  the  chemotropism  of  vegetable 
cells  (attraction  or  repulsion  by  certain  chemical  substances). 
The  behavior  of  the  white  blood-cells  in  inflammation,  which  is 
analogous  to  the  chemotaxis  of  plant  cells,  was  first  demonstra-ted 
by  Leber. 

Other  Theories.— 1.  The  Exhaustion  Theory  (Pasteur).  The  first  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  cause  of  immunity  was  made  by  Pasteur.  In  his  studies 
of  fermentation  he  observed  that  the  ferment  organisms  became  inefiFective 
after  a  certain  time,  when  they  had  used  up  a  certain  quantity  of  the  nutritive 
material  from  the  nutrient  solution,  and  he  concluded  that  the  pathogenic 
organisms  likewise  withdraw  from  the  invaded  body  certain  substances  indis- 
pensable to  their  development,  so  that  the  body  is  in  a  certain  sense  exhausted 
and  microorganisms  invading  the  body  later  fail  to  find  suitable  nutritive 
material.  Similarly,  the  so-called  soil  exhaustion  is  observed  after  long- 
continued  planting  of  the  same  fodder  crop. 

2.  The  Aggressin  Theory  (Bail).  Aggressins  is  the  term  used  by  Bail 
to  describe  the  bacterial  products  which  are  formed,  especially  at  the  point 
of  infection,  to  assist  the  bacteria  in  the  combat  between  them  and  the  leuco- 
cytes. The  aggressins  possess  negative  chemotactic  properties,  as  a  result 
of  which  the  leucocytes  are  repelled.  They  are  found  especially  in  the  oedema 
at  the  point  of  infection  (in  anthrax)  and  in  peritonitic  and  pleuritic  exu- 
dates. The  injection  of  such  "aggressive  exudates"  produces  active  im- 
munity. The  blood-serum  of  an  actively  immunized  animal  contains 
passively  immunizing  "anti-aggressins." 

3.  The  Opsonic  Theory  (Wright).  According  to  Wright,  the  specific 
action  of  serum  is  due  to  opsonins,  in  addition  to  antitoxic  and  bactericidal 
substances.  Opsonins  are  protective  substances  which  promote  phagocytosis 
by  making  the  bacteria  more  readily  digestible  by  the  leucocytes  (bacterio- 
tropic  substances). 

4.  The  Assimilation  Theory  (Baumgarten).  The  blood  of  immune  animals 
contains  no  antitoxins  (no  one  has  demonstrated  them!),  but  is  so  changed 
chemically  that  the  pathogenic  organisms  can  no  longer  develop  in  it.  (See 
the  colyseptic  action  of  the  disinfectants.) 


230        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

6.  According  to  Much  (Immunitatawissenschaft,  1911),  a  distinction 
must  be  made  between  tozin  bacteria  and  endotoxin  bacteria  in  considering 
the  immunizing  processes  occmring  in  the  different  infectious  diseases. 

I.  The  toxin  bacteria  remain  at  the  point  of  infection  (tetanus,  diph- 
theria, sausage  poisoning)  and  act  pathogenically  by  the  excretion  of  poisons 
(bacterial  poisons  or  toxins).  The  antitoxins  are  the  antidotes,  which  appear 
in  the  blood-serum  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  the  toxins.  The  anti- 
toxic serum  acts  against  the  toxins  as  well  as  against  the  bacteria. 

II.  The  endotoxin  bacteria  spread  through  the  body  (septicaemia,  strepto- 
cocci) and  exert  a  pathogenic  effect  not  only  through  the  toxins  excreted  but 
also  through  the  cell  substances  of  the  bacteria  (endotoxins)  when  they  dis- 
integrate in  the  animal  body.  They  are  not  counteracted  by  antitoxins,  but 
the  substances  which  protect  the  body  against  these  organisms  are:  1,  normal 
humoral  bacteriocidins,  i.e.,  the  bactericidal  substances  which  are  present  in 
solution  in  every  normal  serum  (serum  substances);  2,  normal  leucocytic 
bacteriocidins,  i.e.,  the  bactericidal  substances  in  solution  which  originate 
from  the  leucocytes  (plasma  substances);  3,  specific  humoral  bacteriocidins, 
which  appear  in  the  senun  in  the  later  stages  of  the  infection — these  three 
protective  substances  destroy  the  living  organisms;  4,  the  poisonous  substances 
of  the  endobacteria,  the  endotoxins,  are  destroyed  through  phagocytosis  by 
the  leucocytes,  while  phagocytosis  is  again  stimulated  by  the  bacteriocidins. 

The  Weakening  (Mitigation)  or  Attenuation  of  the  Infec- 
tious Materials. — In  every  protective  or  curative  vaccination  it 
is  important  that  the  infectious  material  be  used  in  a  weakened, 
mild  (mitigated),  diluted  (attenuated)  form,  since  the  unweak- 
ened,  unattenuated  virus  will  produce  a  severe  or  fatal  infection. 
The  methods  and  manner  of  attenuation  are  very  different.  The 
most  imporiiant,  arranged  in  historical  order,  are  the  following : 

1.  The  mtroduction  of  a  small  quantity  of  the  infectious 
material.  The  greater  the  number  of  a  pathogenic  organism  in 
the  body  the  more  pronounced  the  effect;  therefore,  in  vaccination 
care  must  be  exercised  that  only  a  minimum  quantity  of  the 
infectious  material  is  inoculated,  otherwise  the  original  disease 
will  be  produced  in  undiminished  strength. 

2.  The  selection  of  a  different  entrance  point  for  the  infec- 
tious material.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  contagion  of  most 
infections  is  taken  in  through  the  internal  organs,  especially  the 
respiratory  and  digestive  apparatus.    This  has  been  demonstrated 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        231 

in  connection  with  lung  plague,  foot-and-mouth  disease,  rinderpest, 
pox,  swine  erysipelas,  chicken  cholera  and  other  diseases.  If  the 
contagion  of  these  diseases  is  introduced  into  the  body  through 
another  channel,  for  example  through  the  skin  or  subcutis,  it  will 
be  brought  in  contact  with  essentially  different  living  conditions 
and  it  will  also  be  absorbed  very  slowly  and  in  very  small  quantity. 
This  method  of  attenuation  was  formerly  employed  exclusively 
in  veterinary  medicine  and  possesses  for  the  present  and  for  the 
future  of  vaccination  a  continuing  importance.  At  the  present 
time,  for  instance,  the  contagion  of  pox  and  of  foot-and-mouth 
disease  is  inoculated  in  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane  (cutaneous), 
and  that  of  lung  plague,  black  leg,  swine  erysipelas,  rinderpest, 
etc.,  is  injected  subcutaneously  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  the 
course  of  the  disease.  Furthermore,  a  place  for  the  inoculation 
is  selected  as  far  removed  from  the  heart  as  possible  in  order  that 
the  resorption  will  be  very  slow  (end  of  the  tail,  tip  of  the  wing, 
ear). 

3.  The  influence  of  the  higher  degrees  of  temperature.  Every 
organism  has  its  optimum  and  its  maximum  temperature.  Higher 
degrees  of  temperature  weaken  the  vital  energy  and  finally  destroy 
the  organism.  It  is  therefore  possible  to  diminish  the  toxic  effect 
of  the  different  infectious  materials  by  the  use  of  a  certain  degree 
of  heat.  The  reduction  of  the  virulence  by  heating  for  10  to  15 
minutes  at  50  to  55°  C.  was  first  demonstrated  by  Toussaint  in 
connection  with  the  anthrax  bacillus.  The  heating  process  is  of 
great  practical  importance  in  Pasteur's  protective  anthrax  vacci- 
nation, in  which  one  part  of  the  anthrax  bacilli  is  exposed  for  24 
days  to  a  constant  temperature  of  42°  to  43°  C.  (first  vaccine) 
and  the  other  part  to  the  same  temperature  for  only  12  days 
(second  vaccine).  The  animals  to  be  protected  are  first  inoculated 
subcutaneously  with  the  greatly  attenuated  first  vaccine  and  10 
to  12  days  later  with  the  less  attenuated  second  vaccine;  they 
suffer  only  a  mild  form  of  the  disease  and  acquire  an  immunity. 
Other  infectious  materials  (black  leg,  pox)  can  also  be  treated  in 
a  similar  manner. 


232        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

4.  Desiccation.  Just  as  with  high  degrees  of  heat,  the  viru- 
lence of  some  contagions  is  reduced  by  drying  (withdrawal  of 
water).  This  method  of  mitigation  has  been  of  practical  use  in 
Pasteur's  rabies  vaccination,  also  in  black  leg  vaccination  (Kitt) 
and  in  part  in  cow  pox  inoculation  (vaccination).  In  the  Pasteur 
process  small  pieces  of  the  spinal  cord  of  a  rabbit  affected  with 
rabies  are  suspended  in  bottles  and  dried;  to  hasten  desiccation 
the  bottom  of  the  bottle  is  covered  with  small  pieces  of  caustic 
potash  and  at  the  same  time  the  bottles  are  held  constantly 
at  a  temperature  of  20°  C.  By  this  method  the  virulence  of  the 
rabies  virus  is  weakened  so  that  after  1  to  2  days'  drying  7  days 
are  required  for  it  to  produce  its  effects;  after  3  to  5  days'  drying, 
8  days;  after  6  to  9  days',  15  days,  etc.  As  the  weakest  material 
is  first  injected  subcutaneously  and  stronger  material  at  each 
successive  injection,  the  vaccinated  animals  (and  man)  gradu- 
ally acquire  an  immunity. 

5.  The  influence  of  disinfectants.  The  addition  of  anti- 
septics to  cultures  of  bacteria  also  reduces  their  virulence.  For 
this  purpose  carbolic  acid,  potassium  chromate,  iodine  trichloride, 
oxygen  and  other  disinfectants  have  been  used  in  anthrax,  tetanus, 
pox,  diphtheria,  etc.  Sunlight  and  certain  physical  factors  (high 
atmospheric  pressure)  also  appear  to  have  an  attenuating  effect. 

6.  The  progressive  inoculation  of  material  of  increasing 
virulence.  By  inoculating  first  weakened,  then  more  virulent,  and 
finally  infectious  material  which  has  not  been  attenuated,  the 
organism  gradually  becomes  accustomed  to  the  contagion.  This 
process  is  employed  in  Pasteur's  rabies  and  anthrax  vaccination, 
in  Lorenz's  swine  erysipelas  vaccination  (first  serum,  then  culture 
inoculation),  in  Koch's  vaccination  for  rinderpest  (first  bile,  then 
virulent  blood),  and  in  other  infections.  In  vaccination  for  swine 
erysipelas  and  rinderpest  the  weakened  and  the  strong  vaccine 
have  been  inoculated  at  the  same  time  (simultaneous  inocu- 
lation). 

7.  Long-continued  cultivation  of  the  infectious  material.  As 
was  first  shown  by  Pasteur,  the  virulence  of  a  pathogenic  organ- 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        233 

ism  decreases  with  its  continued  cultivation  on  artificial  culture 
media.  The  anthrax  bacillus  especially  progressively  decreases 
in  virulence  with  long-continued  cultivation  (see  Pasteur's 
vaccination  process)  and  finally  loses  its  virulence  altogether. 
Similar  observations  have  been  made  in  connection  with  the  con- 
tagion of  chicken  cholera,  lung  plague,  pox  and  other  infectious 
diseases. 

8.  The  passage  of  the  infectious  material  through  the  bodies 
of  animals  of  another  species.  The  inoculation  of  some  infec- 
tious materials  into  animals  of  a  different  species  has  the  effect 
of  modifying  their  virulence.  Best  known  in  this  respect  is  the 
inoculation  of  cattle  with  the  virus  of  pox  of  man  and  the  re- 
inoculation  of  man  with  the  considerably  attenuated  virus  thus 
obtained  (cow  pox  vaccination  of  Jenner).  A  similar  effect  is 
obtained  by  the  same  process  with  the  virus  of  rabies  (monkeys, 
rabbits),  swine  erysipelas,  tetanus  and  diphtheria  of  man  (horses, 
rabbits),  anthrax  and  black  leg  (sheep,  goats,  horses)  and  also 
in  other  diseases. 

The  Different  Methods  of  Vaccination. — ^According  to  the 
part  of  the  body  into  which  the  infectious  material  is  injected, 
the  following  methods  of  vaccination  are  distinguished: 

1.  The  cutaneous  or  endermatic  vaccination  consists  of  a  super- 
ficial wounding  of  the  epidermis  of  the  skin  and  exposing  the 
deeper  layers  of  the  rete  malpighii.  By  no  means  must  the  wound 
extend  to  the  subcutis.  The  vaccination  is  carried  out  with  a 
vaccination  lancet  or  needle  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  bleeding 
if  possible.  A  flow  of  blood  will  wash  the  infectious  material  off 
the  skin.  Cutaneous  vaccination  is  used  for  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  sheep  pox  and  small  pox  of  man.  Corresponding  to  the 
cutaneous  method  is  the  mucous  membrane  vaccination,  in  which 
there  is  only  a  superficial  wounding  of  the  epithelium,  the  sub- 
mucosa  being  avoided;  cattle  are  vaccinated  for  foot-and-mouth 
disease  upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth.  Vigorous 
rubbing  of  the  mucous  membrane  is  sufficient  to  wound  it  super- 
ficially.  Corneal  vaccination  is  also  included  in  the  term  cutaneous. 


234        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

2.  The  subcutaneous  or  hypodermatic  vaccination  is  carried 
out  with  a  Pravaz  injection  syringe  or  by  incising  the  skin  and 
forming  a  pocket  (mice,  guinea-pigs,  rabbits,  pigeons,  chickens). 
These  methods  are  used  for  anthrax,  black  leg,  lung  plague, 
swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague  and  hog  cholera,  chicken  cholera, 
and  rinderpest,  in  the  diagnosis  of  glanders,  for  serum  inocula- 
tion and  for  the  injection  of  tuberculin  and  mallein. 

3.  The  interstitial  or  intramuscular  inoculation  consists  in  the 
injection  of  the  vaccine  into  the  interstitial  tissues  or  muscles. 
It  is  therefore  an  essentially  deeper  vaccination  than  the  sub- 
cutaneous and  is  employed,  for  example,  for  the  purpose  of  diag- 
nosing black  leg,  rabies,  and  tuberculosis.  Ostertag  prefers  the 
intramuscular  injection  to  the  intraperitoneal  for  the  bacterio- 
logical demonstration  of  udder  tuberculosis  (milk)  for  the  reason 
that  the  disease  can  be  diagnosed  in  the  inoculated  guinea-pigs 
as  early  as  ten  days  after  the  injection  (nodules  of  the  size  of  a 
pea  in  the  neighboring  lymph  glands). 

4.  The  intravenous  vaccination  introduces  the  infectious  ma- 
terial directly  into  the  blood  stream.  The  needle  of  the  syringe 
is  inserted  into  the  vein  and  the  vaccine  is  injected  in  the  same 
manner  as  drugs  are  injected  intravenously.  This  method  is  used 
in  the  protective  vaccination  against  tuberculosis  of  cattle  (bovo- 
vaccine,  Tauruman)  and  was  formerly  recommended  in  black  leg 
and  lung  plague. 

5.  The  intracranial  inoculation  is  used  only  for  the  purpose  of 
diagnosing  rabies.  It  consists  in  trephining  the  skull-cap  of  rab- 
bits and  introducing  the  suspected  material  under  the  dura  by 
means  of  a  specially  constructed  curved  needle.  Analogous 
methods  are  the  intracerebral  (injection  into  the  brain)  and  the 
lumbar  injection  (subdural  injection  in  the  lumbar  region). 

6.  The  intraperitoneal  inoculation  has  attained  a  great  im- 
portance in  the  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis.  It  consists  in  the  injec- 
tion of  suspected  milk  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  guinea-pigs 
and  is  carried  out  simply  by  means  of  an  ordinary  injection  syringe. 
The  result  of  the  inoculation,  however,  is  only  to  be  expected  3  to 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        235 

5  weeks  after  the  injection  (tuberculosis  of  the  peritoneum  and  the 
abdominal  organs).  This  method  can  also  be  used  in  the  diag- 
nosis of  glanders  (guinea-pigs). 

7.  The  intra-ocular  inoculation  consists  in  introducing  the 
infectious  material  by  means  of  a  fine  injection  needle  through  the 
cocainized  cornea  into  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye.  It  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosing  rabies  (rabbits,  dogs)  and  also 
to  obtain  pure  cultures  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  (rabbits). 

8.  Galactiferous  moculation  is  the  term  used  to  designate 
injections  through  the  teat  canal  into  the  udder  by  means  of 
canula-like  needles  or  milk  tubes  (mastitis  bacteria). 

9.  "  Feeding  inoculation  "  is  the  feeding  of  infectious  material 
to  experimental  animals  (tuberculosis,  anthrax,  chicken  cholera, 
swine  plague,  hog  cholera).  Intra-intestinal  infection  is  the  injec- 
tion of  the  material  into  the  intestines. 

2.  THE  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  VACCINATION 
Purposes  of  Vaccination. — ^While  formerly,  vaccination  was 
almost  exclusively  applied  to  healthy  individuals  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  immunity  to  a  possible  subsequent  infection  (pro- 
tective vaccination),  it  has  been  more  recently  employed  for  other 
purposes.  First  of  all,  mention  must  be  made  of  the  curative  vacci- 
nation, which  has  latterly  occupied  a  place  in  the  foregroimd  of 
therapeutic  interest.  Its  object  is  to  render  assistance  to  the  indi- 
vidual in  which  infection  has  already  taken  place  (post-infection 
vaccination),  while  protective  vaccination  is  employed  before  infec- 
tion (pre-infection  vaccination).  In  addition,  vaccination  is  fre- 
quently resorted  to  to  establish  a  diagnosis.  This  diagnostic  vac- 
cination has  for  its  object  neither  protection  nor  healing  but  the 
production  of  the  disease  in  question  as  rapidly  and  in  as  definite 
form  as  possible,  or  the  generation  of  fever  (tuberculin,  mallein)  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  the  presence  of  disease.  Accordingly, 
the  following  varieties  of  vaccination  may  be  recognized: 

(a)  Protective  vaccination  (pre-infection  inoculation). 

(b)  Curative  vaccination  (post-infection  inoculation). 

(c)  Diagnostic  vaccination. 


236        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

I.  Protective  Vaccination 

Varieties. — Depending  upon  how  long  before  the  outbreak  of 
an  infectious  disease  the  vaccination  is  made,  three  varieties  of 
protective  vaccination  are  recognized:  protective  vaccination  in 
the  restricted  sense,  prophylactic  vaccination,  and  emergency 
vaccination. 

Protective  Vaccination  in  the  Restricted  Sense. — This  is  the 
vaccination  of  all  animals  in  healthy  regions  and  stables,  at  a 
time  when  the  disease  is  not  present,  for  the  purpose  of  immunizing 
them  against  a  possible  subsequent  outbreak  of  the  disease.  A 
good  example  of  this  variety  of  protective  vaccination  is  the  vacci- 
nation of  man  against  smallpox.  In  veterinary  practice,  protec- 
tive vaccination  against  sheep  pox  (ovination)  was  formeriy 
employed;  z.e.,  all  of  the  sheep  in  a  district  were  vaccinated  al- 
though there  was  no  outbreak  of  the  disease.  On  account  of  the 
great  danger  of  introducing,  spreading  and  to  a  certain  extent  of 
artificially  breeding  the  infection  when  vaccination  is  applied 
under  these  circumstances,  this  variety  of  protective  vaccination 
has  been  abandoned. 

Prophylactic  Vaccination. — ^This  is  also  called  precautionary 
vaccination  (preventive  vaccination)  and  is  used  in  disease-free 
stables  when  the  animals  are  threatened  by  an  infectious  disease 
which  has  broken  out  in  the  neighborhood  and  which  may  soon 
attack  them.  Prophylactic  vaccination  is  especially  important 
for  those  regions  in  which  on  account  of  local  or  agricultural  condi- 
tions an  infection  is  stationary  (anthrax,  black  leg,  lung  plague, 
swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  rinderpest,  sheep  pox)  and  where 
because  of  the  conditions  an  effective  protection  is  not  to  be 
expected  from  the  operation  of  veterinary  police  measures. 

Emergency  Vaccination. — ^This  is  the  vaccination  of  animals 
which  are  yet  healthy  but  which  are  in  an  infected  stable  (premises, 
herd),  and  is  employed  most  frequently  in  connection  with  foot- 
and-mouth  disease.  It  is  indicated:  (1)  when  the  infection  of 
the  healthy  animals  can  not  be  prevented;  (2)  when  it  is  assured 
that  the  artificially  inoculated  animals  will  acquire  a  mild  form  of 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        237 

the  disease;  (3)  when  private  and  general  interests  will  be  bene- 
fited by  the  disease  passing  through  the  herd  as  rapidly  as  possible 
(shortening  the  period  of  continuance  of  the  infection  and  conse- 
quently reducing  the  restrictions  of  police  regulations  and  the 
economical  disadvantages).  When  emergency  vaccination  is  re- 
quired by  law  (sheep  pox)  it  is  called  compulsory  vaccination. 
Permitting  the  infection  of  contagious  pneumonia  and  influenza  to 
spread  among  a  lot  of  horses  by  not  separating  the  healthy  from 
the  sick  has  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  emergency  vaccination. 

Veterinary  Police  Regtilations  Concerning  Vaccination 

The  only  legal  regulations  in  Germany  concerning  vaccination 
refer  to  lung  plague,  sheep  pox,  and  swine  erysipelas.  The  German 
veterinary  sanitary  law  of  June  26,  1909,  in  §  23,  mentions  the 
vaccination  of  susceptible  animals  among  the  measures  which  may 
be  instituted  for  protection  against  infectious  diseases.  §  51  pro- 
vides that  vaccination  for  lung  plague  can  be  undertaken  only 
under  oflBcial  direction.  §  56  contains  the  same  restrictions  re- 
garding vaccination  of  sheep  for  pox  and  forbids  protective  vacci- 
nation particularly.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  presence  of 
pox  is  established  the  vaccination  of  all  animals  in  the  flock  is 
required  by  §  53  (emergency  vaccination).  Under  §  54,  the  vacci- 
nation of  all  flocks  threatened  by  the  disease  and  of  all  sheep  in 
the  same  section  can  be  officially  required  (precautionary  vacci- 
nation) when  sheep  pox  has  obtained  a  great  extension,  or  when 
there  is  danger  that  it  will  invade  neighboring  flocks.  §  60  provides 
that  when  swine  erysipelas  becomes  widespread  the  vaccination 
of  the  endangered  swine  of  a  herd,  of  a  locality  or  of  a  large  dis- 
trict may  be  ordered  (precautionary  vaccination).  It  is  left  with 
the  government  to  determine  when  and  under  what  conditions 
vaccination  may  be  undertaken  in  other  cases. 

Protective  Vaccination  for  the  Different  Animal  Infections 

Anthrax.  Two  methods  of  vaccination  deserve  special  consideration: 
Vaccination  according  to  Pasteur  with  attenuated  cultures,  and  vaccination 
according  to  Sobemheim  with  serum  and  cultures. 


238         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

1.  Vaccination  Accordinq  to  Pasteub. — ^The  first  protective  vaccina- 
tions were  made  in  1880  by  Toussaint,  who  heated  defibrinated  anthrax  blood 
at  50-55°  C.  for  10  to  15  minutes  and  then  used  it  immediately  as  a  vaccine. 
Pasteur  demonstrated  in  1881  that  immimity  could  be  produced  by  attenu- 
ating the  bacilli.  Further  investigations  showed  that  the  virulence  of  the 
anthrax  bacilli  could  be  reduced  by  very  numerous  and  different  methods: 
heat  (Pasteur,  Toussaint,  Chauveau),  compressed  oxygen  (Chauveau  and 
Wosnessenski),  antiseptics  (Chamberland  and  Roux),  sunlight  (Arloing). 
The  bacilU  can  also  be  weakened  by  cultivating  them  upon  the  blood  of  vacci- 
nated sheep  (MetschnikofF)  or  in  the  bodies  of  frogs  (Lubarsch).  Pasteur 
produced  his  vaccine  by  cultivating  the  bacilU  at  42-43°  C.  in  an  atmosphere 
of  oxygen  for  24  days  for  the  first  or  weaker  vaccine  and  for  only  12  days  for 
the  second  or  stronger  vaccine.  The  animal  is  first  vaccinated  with  the  first 
vaccine  and  10  to  14  daya  later  with  the  second  vaccine.  The  technique  of  the 
vaccination  according  to  the  Pasteur  method  is  as  follows:  The  vials  sent 
out  from  the  Pasteur  laboratory  must  be  used  at  once,  the  entire  contents 
being  withdrawn  at  one  time;  they  must  not  be  opened  until  immediately 
before  the  vaccination.  A  syringe  holding  one  gram  and  divided  into  eight 
divisions  is  used  to  make  the  injections.  Each  time  before  being  used  the 
syringe  must  be  carefully  cleaned  and  disinfected.  The  lymph  vial  contain- 
ing the  first  vaccine  is  thoroughly  shaken,  opened  and  the  syringe  filled 
directly  from  it.  One-eighth  of  the  contents  is  then  injected  subcutaneously 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  right  thigh  of  the  sheep  to  be  vaccinated,  and  the  open- 
ing made  by  the  needle  is  closed  with  the  thumb.  After  12  to  14  days,  the 
second  vaccination  is  made  with  the  second  vaccine  in  the  same  manner. 
One-fourth  of  the  contents  of  the  syringe  is  injected  in  vaccinating  cattle, 
the  first  vaccine  being  injected  in  back  of  the  right  shoulder  and  the  second 
vaccine  in  back  of  the  left  shoulder;  the  hair  is  clipped  before  the  injection 
b  made.  Cows  in  advanced  pregnancy  and  lambs  and  calves  should  not  be 
vaccinated. 

The  results  of  the  Pasteur  vaccination  are  as  follows:  For  sheep  it  is 
not  to  be  recommended.  Very  frequently  it  produces,  especially  in  sheep, 
only  a  very  slight  immunity  or  none  at  all,  and  in  the  most  favorable  cases 
the  immunity  lasts  only  one  year,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  vaccinate  yearly. 
Moreover,  the  mortaUty  resulting  from  the  vaccination  is  often  very  great, 
sometimes  amounting  to  10  to  15  per  cent,  after  the  second  vaccination. 
The  Pasteur  vaccines  are  also  very  inconstant,  being  at  one  time  too  strong 
and  at  another  too  weak,  according  to  whether  they  have  been  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature nearer  to  42  or  43°  C.  Sometimes  the  vaccine  shows  a  return  of 
virulence,  especially  when  it  has  been  attenuated  quickly  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture; on  the  other  hand,  the  virulence  may  be  entirely  lost  when  the  vaccine 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        239 

is  kept  too  long.  Then  again,  the  same  vaccine  will  not  answer  for  all  sheep, 
since  the  different  breeds  differ  in  their  susceptibiHty  to  the  same  vaccine. 
Finally,  the  cost  of  vaccination,  which  is  not  inconsiderable,  must  also  be 
taken  into  account.  According  to  the  favorable  results  obtained  in  France 
and  Hungary,  the  vaccination  of  sheep  can  only  be  recommended  in  an  experi- 
mental way  when  a  good  vaccine  is  available  in  regions  in  which  the  disease 
is  stationary  and  is  attended  with  regular  and  considerable  losses  (at  least 
over  2  per  cent.). 

For  cattle,  the  Pasteur  protective  vaccination  has  a  certain  value  only 
in  badly  infected  anthrax  districts.  It  is  not  suitable  for  use  in  other  sections 
on  account  of  the  uncertainty  and  short  duration  of  the  immunity,  the  losses 
resulting  and  the  agricultural  disadvantages  (illness  of  vaccinated  animals), 
but  especially  because  of  the  great  danger  of  the  infection  of  non-vaccinated 
animals  and  man.  The  second  vaccine  contains  strongly  virulent  bacilH. 
Horses  bear  the  vaccination  very  badly. 

2.  Photective  Vaccination  Accgedinq  to  Sobernheim. — The  method 
of  Sobernheim  consists  of  the  inoculation  of  serum  followed  by  the  injection  of 
anthrax  cultures  (simultaneous  vaccination);  horses  and  cattle  receive  on 
one  side  of  the  body  5  c.c.  and  sheep  4  c.c.  of  immune  serum  and  five  minutes 
later  upon  the  other  side  0.5  c.c.  and  0.25  c.c.  respectively  of  an  attenuated 
anthrax  bouillon  culture  of  the  virulence  of  the  Pasteur  second  vaccine.  In 
1904,  75,000  cattle  were  vaccinated  in  the  Argentine  Republic  with  a  loss  of 
only  1  in  1000;  up  to  this  time  the  results  in  Prussia  have  been  less  favorable. 
On  the  other  hand,  curative  vaccination  with  the  serum  in  so  far  as  it 
has  been  tested  has  given  very  favorable  results,  corresponding  with  the 
results  from  the  earUer  intravenous  and  subcutaneous  injection  of  immime 
serum. 

Lung  Plague. — The  oldest  and  most  important  method  of  vaccination  is 
that  of  Willems  (1851).  The  material  for  inoculation  is  obtained  from  an 
animal  in  the  first  stages  of  the  disease.  The  animal  is  slaughtered  and  the 
diseased  areas  are  removed  from  the  fresh  lungs.  This  diseased  tissue  is 
subjected  to  gentle  pressure  to  express  the  lymph,  which  is  allowed  to  coagulate 
and  is  then  filtered  through  clean  linen.  The  inoculation  is  made  on  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  tail  8  to  10  cm.  from  the  tip,  the  injection  being  made  into  the 
subcutaneous  tissue  in  one  or  two  places  1  to  2  cm.  apart,  after  chpping  the 
hair.  The  lymph  must  be  clear,  of  a  wine-yellow  color,  and  must  not  be  taken 
from  necrotic  lung  areas,  but  only  from  places  which  are  in  the  stage  of  hepatiza- 
tion. On  the  average,  the  vaccination  is  effective  in  75  to  90  per  cent,  of  the 
cases.  After  1  to  4  weeks  there  appears  at  the  point  of  inoculation  an  inflam- 
matory swelling  which  is  not  larger  than  a  hen's  egg  when  the  course  is  normal; 
in  addition,  a  mild  fever  and  a  shght  increane  in  the  respiration  is  observed. 


240        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

If  the  lymph  is  not  entirely  pure,  there  is  an  extensive  swelhng  of  the  whole 
tail  with  necrosis  of  the  tip,  accompanied  by  very  high  fever  and  symptoms 
of  septicaemia  and  pyaemia.  The  same  effects  are  produced  when  the  inocula- 
tion is  made  into  the  dewlap  or  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  for  which  reason  these 
places  are  to  be  avoided.  When  the  tail  becomes  highly  inflamed,  an  unfav- 
orable termination  must  be  combated  by  free  incisions  into  the  swelling, 
antiseptic  treatment,  and,  finally,  by  amputation  of  the  necrosed  end.  The 
deaths  always  average  from  1  to  3  per  cent.,  while  5  to  15  per  cent,  lose  the 
end  of  the  tail.  Sometimes,  after  6  to  8  weeks,  a  second  inoculation  is  made 
above  the  point  of  the  first  injection. 

According  to  Nocard,  cultures  of  the  microorganism  of  lung  plague  are 
better  suited  for  inoculation  than  the  lymph;  it  is  more  certain  and  milder. 
The  vaccine,  an  8-day  bouillon  culture,  is  injected  subcutaneously  at  the  tip 
of  the  tail  in  doses  of  0.15  to  0.5  c.c;  the  immunity  should  continue  2  years. 

In  addition  to  the  caudal  vaccination,  intravenous  vaccination  was  under- 
taken by  Thiernesse,  Defays,  Bouley,  Degive,  Sanderson  and  others,  2  c.c. 
of  the  lymph  being  injected  directly  into  the  jugular.  The  results  were  very 
good  and  more  certain  than  those  from  caudal  vaccination;  in  one  case  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs,  with  marmoration,  was  produced.  The  vaccination  with 
secondary  calf  lymph  according  to  Pasteur  has  not  proven  satisfactory. 

With  regard  to  the  value  of  vaccination,  there  is  no  agreement.  The 
advocates  of  vaccination  base  their  claims  upon  the  well-known  fact  that 
after  recovering  from  an  attack  of  the  disease  cattle  are  immune  for  life. 
Vaccination  sets  up  a  specific  local  inflammatory  process  exactly  similar  to 
that  which  takes  place  in  the  lungs  in  lung  plague  and  generates  an  immunity 
of  the  entire  body.  In  addition,  vaccination  shortens  the  course  of  the  plague 
in  a  stable.  The  losses  after  caudal  vaccination  are  declared  to  be  entirely 
inconsiderable.  Haubner  calculates  that  1  to  2  per  cent,  die,  while  5  to  10 
per  cent,  lose  the  end  of  the  tail.  In  Holland,  where  60,000  cattle  were  vacci- 
nated in  1878-79,  the  mortality  amounted  to  0»66  per  cent.  The  favorable 
results  obtained  in  the  Spoling  district  of  Holland,  in  the  province  of  Saxony, 
in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt  and  in  Australia  are  presented  as  proof  of  the  value  of 
vaccination.  To  these  are  added  the  positive  results  obtained  by  Schiitz  and 
Steffen.  A  further  extension  of  the  disease  through  vaccination  is  denied. 
Moreover,  compared  with  the  great  pecuniary  losses  attending  the  slaughter 
method  of  controlhng  the  disease,  vaccination  is  by  far  the  cheapest;  while 
the  value  of  sanitary  laws,  however  stringent,  is  disputed.  The  following 
statistics  are  presented :  Degive  computed  the  results  of  vaccination  in  several 
countries  from  1850  to  1883  and  found  that  of  6705  vaccinated  animals  only 
2.7  per  cent,  contracted  the  disease,  and  that  of  2453  non-vaccinated  animals 
26.9  per  cent,  became  infected,  although  both  classes  of  animals  were  similarly 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        241 

exposed  to  the  disease.  According  to  Piitz,  the  number  of  animals  affected 
with  lung  plague  in  Holland  was  reduced  by  vaccination  from  6079  in  1871 
to  2227  in  1875,  951  in  1877,  157  m  1879  and,  finaUy,  11  m  1882.  In  Hasselt, 
where  200,000  cattle  were  vaccinated  with  good  results  during  the  period 
from  1850  to  1880,  the  losses  regularly  increased  when  vaccination  was  omitted. 
Rochebrune  relates  that  for  years  the  Moors  in  Senegambia  have  vaccinated 
their  cattle  against  limg  plague  with  good  results  by  sticking  the  point  of  a 
knife  into  the  lungs  of  a  slaughtered  animal  and  then  incising  with  the  knife 
the  skin  of  the  animal  to  be  vaccinated  in  the  region  of  the  nostrils. 

The  opponents  of  vaccination  point  out  that  a  positive  case  of  immuniza- 
tion by  vaccination  has  not  been  demonstrated  up  to  this  time.  Even  the 
friends  of  vaccination  are  not  in  a  position  to  state  how  long  the  immunity 
continues,  whether  %  or  1  or  2  years;  others  who  favor  vaccination  speak 
only  of  partial  action  and  immunization  and  therefore  vaccinate  several  times. 
The  specific  character  of  the  vaccination  swelling  is  disputed,  since  an  entirely 
similar  swelling  arises  after  the  inoculation  of  pus  or  milk.  Furthermore,  the 
vaccination  has  in  no  case  produced  a  lung  plague  pneumonia,  the  principal 
criterion  of  the  disease,  while  this  alteration  occurs  even  in  those  cases  in 
which  the  infection  is  transmitted  intra-uterine  from  the  mother  to  the  foetus. 
The  results  of  vaccination  are  dependent  upon  the  method  and  time  of  inocu- 
lation and  upon  the  quaUty  of  the  vaccine.  Animals  already  immune  were 
also  frequently  vaccinated  and  the  previously  acquired  immunity  attributed  to 
the  effects  of  the  vaccine.  The  disease  has  been  introduced  and  artificiallyprop- 
agated  by  vaccination.  The  losses  from  vaccination  are  under  certain  circum- 
stances very  considerable;  the  mortality  is  frequently  very  great,  even  at  times 
exceeding  the  usual  f atahties  from  the  disease  itself.  In  the  preamble  to  the 
German  Imperial  veterinary  sanitary  laws  thelosses  from  vaccination  are  given 
as  2  to  4  per  cent. ;  the  end  of  the  tail  is  lost  in  25  per  cent,  of  thecases  according 
to  the  observations  of  a  French  vaccination  commission,  in  10  to  15  per  cent, 
according  to  Degive.  In  addition  there  are  the  economical  disadvantages, 
decrease  of  the  milk  secretions,  emaciation,  etc.  The  disease  often  spreads 
in  spite  of  vaccination,  while  in  other  cases  it  subsides  without  vaccination; 
many  animals  have  the  disease  without  showing  perceptible  symptoms.  In 
those  countries  in  which  vaccination  was  most  extensively  practised  the 
disease  is  not  yet  on  the  decUne.  In  England,  for  example,  and  in  France  and 
Belgium,  in  which  vaccination  was  obhgatory,  as  well  as  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  the  disease  still  exists.  In  other  countries,  for  instance  Holland,  the 
repression  of  the  disease  is  perhaps  not  the  result  of  vaccination  but  of  the 
simultaneous  enforcement  of  veterinary  police  measures,  especially  slaughter. 
In  Belgium,  according  to  Oemler,  the  number  of  cases  of  lung  plague  increased 
from  1481  in  1867  to  2800  in  1878  in  spite  of  vaccination,  but  after  that  date, 
16 


242         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

in  consequence  of  the  strict  enforcement  of  veterinaxy  police  regulations,  the 
number  of  cases  rapidly  decreased,  imtil  in  1880  there  were  1781  and  in  1883, 
1187  cases.  A  compilation  made  by  Kitt  shows  that  in  England  the  number 
of  cases  decreased  only  with  the  adoption  of  stringent  protective  regulations 
in  1878  from  4590  to  2144  in  1879  and  to  1200  in  1882.  In  Bavaria,  following 
the  introduction  of  the  Imperial  veterinary  sanitary  laws,  the  number  of  cases 
decreased  from  846  in  1846  to  281  in  1883.  In  Baden,  where  from  1870  to 
1880  0.2  per  cent,  of  all  the  cattle  died  yearly  from  lung  plague,  there  was 
not  a  single  case  in  1885. 

The  answer  to  the  question  as  to  the  value  of  vaccination  for  lung  plague 
depends  principally  upon  whether  it  is  to  be  used  only  for  immimizing  individ- 
ual animals  or  to  combat  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  in  a  herd  or  in  a  district. 
In  this  connection  the  following  statements  can  be  made :  (1)  Vaccination, 
as  a  rule,  confers  a  high  degree  of  immunity  upon  individual  cattle.  (2)  The 
value  of  vaccination  as  a  veterinary  police  measure  for  combating  lung  plague 
is,  on  the  contrary,  doubtful.  Experience  has  many  times  taught  that  not 
all  vaccinated  cattle  acquire  an  immunity,  but  that  about  2  per  cent,  remain 
susceptible  to  the  disease.  These  apparently  immune  cattle,  when  they  subse- 
quently suffer  a  latent  attack  of  the  disease,  are  a  continuous  source  of  infec- 
tion for  healthy  animals,  especially  in  regions  where  the  traffic  in  cattle  is 
extensive  (province  of  Saxony).  Furthermore,  lung  plague  sometimes  runs 
such  a  mild  course  that  no  symptoms  of  disease  are  apparent  and  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  disease  in  time  for  the  vaccination  of  the  herd  is  not  possible.  The 
length  of  the  period  of  incubation  also  often  prevents  a  prompt  diagnosis  or 
early  vaccination.  As  a  method  of  combating  the  disease,  slaughter  of  the 
infected  herds  is  much  more  reliable  than  vaccination. 

Rabies. — Pasteur  announced  in  1884  that  the  virus  of  rabies  could  be 
gradually  weakened  by  inoculating  it  from  the  dog  into  a  monkey  and  then 
successively  from  monkey  to  monkey.  Virus  attenuated  in  this  way  and  in- 
jected subcutaneously  or  under  the  dura  mater,  after  trepanation  of  the 
cranial  cavity,  does  not  produce  rabies  in  the  dog,  but  on  the  contrary  renders 
the  animal  immune  to  artificial  or  natural  infection  with  the  disease.  Subse- 
quently, Pasteur  published  another  method  of  immunization  in  which  the 
dried  spinal  cord  of  a  rabid  animal  is  used  as  the  vaccine.  The  spinal  cord  of 
a  rabbit  affected  with  rabies  is  removed  under  aseptic  precautions  up  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  cerebellum,  together  with  all  of  its  coverings,  and  cut  into 
pieces  6  cm.  long,  which  are  suspended  on  threads  in  bottles.  The  bottoms 
of  the  bottles  are  covered  to  a  depth  of  1.5  cm.  with  small  pieces  of  caustic 
potash  and  their  openings  are  closed  with  cotton  plugs.  They  are  kept  at  a 
constant  temperature  of  20"  C.  After  3  to  4  days,  the  pieces  of  spinal  cord 
are  dried  into  ribbon-like,  very  friable  strips,  the  toxicity  of  which  gradually 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        243 

decreases  with  the  continuance  of  the  drying.  For  example,  rabbits  develop 
rabies  after  7  days  when  they  are  inoculated  with  material  which  has  been 
dried  24  to  28  hours;  after  8  days,  when  the  material  has  been  dried  3  to  5 
days;  after  15  days,  when  the  drying  has  continued  6  to  9  days.  Animals 
(horses,  dogs)  and  man  are  made  immune  to  rabies  by  injecting  them  first 
with  a  very  weak  virus,  then  with  a  sUghtly  more  virulent  virus,  and  so  on, 
until  at  last  a  very  strong  virus  is  injected.  After  this,  the  full  strength  rabies 
virus  can  be  injected  without  harm.  This  method  of  vaccination  has  proven 
of  value  also  as  a  curative  remedy  when  applied  to  human  individuals  bitten 
by  rabid  dogs  (post-infection  vaccination).  Other  methods  of  vaccination 
for  rabies  (diluted  virus,  intravenous  injection  of  brain  substance,  serum 
inoculation,  simultaneous  vaccination)  have  been  pubhshed  by  Hogyes, 
Helman,  Babes,  Galtier,  Protopopoff,  and  others. 

Foot-and-mouth  Disease. — As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  (Buniva),  and  very  frequently  since  then,  vaccination  in  the  form  of 
emergency  vaccination  has  been  effectively  employed  to  induce  the  regular 
extension  and  to  shorten  the  course  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  in  large  herds 
(Ercolani,  Brauell,  Renner,  Hoffmann,  Wirtz,  Spinola,  Hertwig,  Lewes, 
Brandes  and  others).  Emergency  vaccination  is  a  measure  entirely  worthy 
of  recommendation,  because  it  not  only  causes  a  more  rapid  extension  of  the 
disease  through  a  herd  and  consequently  permits  an  earlier  removal  of  the 
sanitary  poUce  regulations,  but  the  vaccination  disease  frequently  runs  a 
milder  course  and  is  confined  to  the  mouth.  The  emergency  vaccinations 
made  in  the  last  ten  years  in  numerous  herds  in  almost  all  sections  of  Germany 
have  mostly  been  accompanied  by  good  results;  their  influence  was  most 
favorable  when  the  vaccinations  were  made  at  the  first  appearance  of  the 
disease.  Of  the  vaccinated  animals,  50  to  80  per  cent,  became  infected  on  the 
average;  the  others  proved  themselves  to  be  immune.  Emergency  vaccination 
is  only  contraindicated  in  the  malignant  form  of  foot-and-mouth  disease,  in 
which  the  vaccination  disease  may  be  dangerous. 

The  technique  of  the  vaccination  is  very  simple.  The  eaiiva  of  an  affected 
animal  is  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  animal  to  be  vaccinated  at  a  point  where 
the  mucous  membrane  has  been  previously  rubbed,  or  it  is  inoculated  with  a 
lancet  anywhere  in  the  skin;  impregnated  threads  can  also  be  drawn  under  the 
skin  of  the  ear  or  tail.  Swine  are  inoculated  on  the  nose  with  a  syringe  and 
needle.  Fever  occurs  24  hours  after  the  inoculation;  on  the  third  day  the 
vesicles  appear,  and  healing  of  the  ulcers  begins  from  the  sixth  day  on.  The 
course  of  the  vaccination  disease  is  in  general  milder  than  that  of  the  natural 
infection. 

With  reference  to  the  protective  vaccination  with  blood-serum,  the  investi- 
gations are  not  yet  concluded.     Hecker's  vaccine  and  "seraphthin,"  intro- 


244        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

duced  by  Loffler  in  1899,  did  not  answer  the  purpose.  It  is  doubtful  if  the 
sera  employed  by  Nocard  and  Loffler  on  cattle  (2  to  3  weeks'  immunity), 
sheep  and  swine  (3  to  8  weeks'  immunity)  will  prove  of  practical  value.  A 
method  of  protective  vaccination  suitable  for  practice  is  not  yet  known. 
Loffler's  serum  (1912)  is  not  adapted  to  general  use  because  of  the  high  price 
(about  $7  per  animal),  the  complicated  process  (four  vaccinations)  and  the 
short  diu-ation  of  the  effect. 

Sheep  Pox. — In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  entire  flocks  of 
sheep  were  subjected  to  protective  vaccination  against  sheep  pox  (ovination) 
each  year,  with  the  assistance  of  special  vaccination  institutes,  whether  an 
outbreak  of  the  disease  was  threatened  or  not.  This  regulation  proved  to  be 
very  objectionable.  Not  only  did  the  protective  vaccinations  estabhsh  per- 
manently infected  flocks,  in  which  the  disease  became  stationary,  but  the 
infection  spread  from  these  flocks  to  the  adjoining  regions,  the  danger  of 
healthy  animals  being  infected  by  vaccinated  individuals  being  exceedingly 
great.  In  several  countries,  for  example  in  Prussia  and  Austria,  the  spread 
of  the  disease  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  protective  vaccination.  On  the 
other  hand,  emergency  vaccination  is  worthy  of  reconunendation,  and  is 
therefore  included  in  the  requirements  of  the  German  sanitary  laws  (§  53). 
Emergency  vaccination  is  employed  only  in  those  flocks  in  which  the  disease 
has  already  broken  out.  Not  only  does  it  cause  the  disease  to  run  a  quicker 
course,  inducing  a  more  rapid  extension  of  the  infection  through  the 
flock  and  consequently  an  earlier  removal  of  the  sanitary  poUce  restric- 
tions, but  the  disease  itself  is  of  a  milder  type  and  usually  only  local,  so 
that  frequently  there  are  no  deaths  and  usually  not  more  than  2  per  cent, 
die.  Only  when  all  external  factors  are  unfavorable,  the  losses  excep- 
tionally reach  10  per  cent.  In  addition  to  emergency  vaccination,  precau- 
tionary or  prophylactic  vaccination  may  also  be  employed  when  an  extensive 
outbreak  of  sheep  pox  prevails  in  the  neighborhood  of  healthy  flocks  and  the 
situation  is  such  that  there  is  great  danger  of  these  flocks  being  infected  (§  54). 

The  vaccine,  or  "ovine,"  can  only  be  obtained  from  sheep  with  normally 
developed  pox  and  in  which  the  disease  runs  a  benign  course.  The  Ijmaph 
must  be  entirely  clear  and  limpid,  neither  turbid  nor  purulent;  it  is  therefore 
usually  collected  from  the  vaccinated  sheep  on  the  10th  to  the  12th  day  after 
the  vaccination,  or  6  to  8  days  after  the  eruption.  The  vaccinated  sheep  must 
be  kept  separate  from  the  sheep  from  which  it  was  inoculated,  and  the  sheep 
to  be  vaccinated  must  not  be  permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  the  infected 
sheep  from  which  the  material  for  inoculation  is  obtained,  otherwise  infection 
may  take  place  spontaneously  at  the  same  time.  The  inoculation  may  be 
made  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  ear,  4  cm.  from  the  tip,  or  better  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  tail,  10  to  12  cm.  from  the  anus.    In  the  latter  case  the  animal 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        245 

must  be  laid  down.  Vaccination  on  the  eaj  is  not  entirely  without  danger  on 
account  of  the  proximity  of  the  eye.  The  instrument  used  is  either  a  fine  and 
pointed  vaccinating  needle  with  a  spoon-like  excavation,  or  a  vaccination 
lancet.  In  vaccinating  an  entire  flock,  it  is  an  advantage,  when  time  will 
permit,  to  make  a  preliminary  or  test  vaccination  of  six  to  tVelve  animals. 
The  vaccinated  sheep  show  an  entirely  regular  pox  exanthema  which  is  Hmited 
to  the  point  of  vaccination,  and  very  mild  general  symptoms.  The  pox  become 
ripe  on  the  tenth  day  after  vaccination.  Exceptionally,  the  pox  do  not 
develop  at  the  point  of  vaccination  but  in  the  surrounding  area  (accessory 
pox) ;  very  rarely,  a  general  eruption  of  pox  is  observed  following  the  vaccina- 
tion eruption  (secondary  pox).  The  after-treatment  consists  in  protecting 
the  vaccinated  animals  from  unfavorable  weather  and  providing  them  with 
suitable  food.  In  addition,  an  examination  of  the  flock  should  be  made  in 
ten  to  twelve  days  and  those  animals  again  vaccinated  in  which  the  first 
vaccination  was  not  effective. 

In  place  of  ovination,  serum  vaccination,  serum  therapy  and  simultaneous 
inoculation  with  immune  serum  and  virulent  lymph  are  also  recommended 
(France,  Roumania). 

Rinderpest. — 1.  The  Old  Stibcutaxeous  Method. — On  the  steppes  of 
Russia,  where  this  form  of  vaccination  was  practised  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  formerly  employed  as  a  prophylactic  measure; 
but  only  in  the  form  of  emergency  and  precautionary  vaccination,  never  as 
protective  vaccination,  because  of  the  great  risk  of  spreading  the  disease  by 
the  latter.  At  the  present  time  there  are  four  vaccination  institutes  in  Russia 
(Kharkov,  Karlovka  in  Poltava,  Bondarewka  in  Kherson,  and  Salmysch  in 
the  Orenburg  government),  but  vaccination  is  falling  more  and  more  into  disuse. 
In  Germany  and  the  other  European  countries,  except  Russia,  emergency 
vaccLQation  is  not  permitted,  because  in  them  veterinary  pohce  measures, 
i.e.,  slaughter,  are  much  more  effective  and  certain  and  because  the  mortality 
from  the  vaccination  of  ordinary  cattle  is  much  too  high.  The  mortality 
among  the  cattle  of  the  steppes  from  vaccination  is  only  about  10  per  cent., 
while  among  the  other  breeds  it  is  36  per  cent.  Toward  the  end  of  the  out- 
break favorable  results  from  vaccination  are  relatively  more  frequent.  The 
technique  of  the  vacciaation  is  simple.  A  clean  sponge  is  placed  in  the  nostril 
and  permitted  to  remain  there  until  it  has  absorbed  its  fill  of  nasal  mucus, 
when  it  is  removed  and  the  contents  expressed  into  a  small  glass  vessel,  which 
is  closed.  A  drop  of  this  material  is  then  injected  under  the  skin  of  the  neck 
with  a  Sticker  syringe. 

2.  Bile  Inoculation  According  to  Koch. — During  his  investigations 
into  the  cause  of  rinderpest  in  South  Africa  (Kimberley)  in  1897,  Koch  foimd 
that  the  bile  as  well  as  the  blood-serum  of  cattle  that  had  passed  through  an 


246        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

attack  of  the  disease  possessed  immunizing  properties.  The  bile  vaccination 
consists  simply  of  a  single  subcutaneous  injection  into  healthy  cattle  of  bile 
(10  c.c.)  from  cattle  affected  with  rinderpest  or  which  have  passed  through  an 
attack  of  the  disease.  Six  to  10  days  after  vaccination,  an  immunity  is  estab- 
lished which  continues  4  to  6  months.  The  local  effect  consists  of  a  hard  swell- 
ing of  the  size  of  the  fist,  which  disappears  after  a  few  weeks.  Protective 
vaccination  with  bile  is  of  extraordinary  value  in  infected  regions.  Kohlstock, 
who  introduced  Koch's  method  of  vaccination  into  German  Southwest  Africa, 
reconmiends  a  double  vaccination  of  bile  and  rinderpest  blood  (emergency 
vaccination).  This  double  vaccination  was  later  approved  by  Koch.  Accord- 
ing to  Kolle,  Koch's  bile  method  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  animal  is 
susceptible  to  infection  for  a  whole  week  after  vaccination.  Furthermore,  it 
is  necessary  to  slaughter  3  to  7  diseased  or  recovered  animals  to  obtain  suffi- 
cient bile  to  vaccinate  100  cattle.  The  mixture  of  bile  and  glycerin  proposed 
by  Edington  is  without  value,  as  the  addition  of  the  glycerin  reduces  the 
degree  as  well  as  the  continuance  of  the  immunity.  According  to  Hutcheon, 
Koch's  bile  vaccination  method  has  been  abandoned  entirely  in  Cape  Colony 
on  account  of  its  great  imperfection. 

3.  Serum  Vaccination. — ^This  method  requires  100  c.c.  of  blood-serum 
and  produces  only  a  passive  immunity  of  short  duration.  It  may  be  used  to 
separate  an  infected  region  from  a  rinderpest-free  region  by  creating  a  broad 
immunized  area  aroimd  the  infected  region.  It  has  preference  over  the  bile 
vaccination  in  that  it  is  effective  in  the  incubation  period  of  rinderpest. 

4.  Simultaneous  Vaccination. — Kolle  and  Turner  recommend  the  simul- 
taneous injection  of  1  c.c.  of  virulent  rinderpest  blood  upon  one  side  of  the 
body  and  the  injection  of  15  to  40  c.c.  of  serum  upon  the  other.  This  method 
confers  an  immunity  for  five  months.  Koch  and  Theiler  have  raised  the 
objection  against  the  simultaneous  method  that  piroplasmse  (infectious  hsemo- 
globinuria)  and  trypanosomes  may  be  inoculated  with  the  rinderpest  blood 
in  regions  infected  with  these  parasites. 

Black  Leg. — 1.  The  Lyons  Method  of  vaccination  was  discovered  by 
Arloing,  Comevin,  and  Thomas.  In  1880  and  1885  they  vaccinated  intra- 
venously, but  with  great  losses.  They  therefore  later  selected  the  subcutis  at 
the  end  of  the  tail  as  the  point  of  vaccination,  because  they  had  foimd  that  the 
black  leg  vims  when  introduced  here  produced  only  a  temporary  harmless 
swelling  but  nevertheless  estabHshed  subsequently  a  complete  immunity. 
The  slight  reaction  at  this  point  is  explained,  in  their  opinion,  by  the  density 
of  the  connective  tissue  and  the  low  temperature  existing  there,  both  of  which 
conditions  prevent  the  spread  of  the  black  leg  bacilli  through  the  connective 
tissue  spaces.  In  addition,  they  also  weakened  the  black  leg  virus  before 
injection  by  exposing  it  to  high  degrees  of  temperature.    The  preparation  of 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        247 

the  vaccine  and  the  process  of  vaccination  according  to  Arloing's  method 
(Lyons  method)  is  as  follows:  40  grams  (1  part)  of  diseased  muscle  tissue  is 
quickly  dried  at  33"  C.  and  uniformly  mixed  with  80  grams  (2  parts)  of  water. 
The  entire  amount  is  then  divided  into  12  parts  of  10  grams  each,  each  part 
is  placed  in  a  suitable  flat  dish  and  dried  for  6  hoiurs  in  a  thermostat.  One- 
half  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  100**  C.  in  order  to  obtain  the  weaker-acting 
first  vaccine,  and  the  other  half  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  85°  C.  to 
produce  the  stronger  second  vaccine.  The  vaccination  is  carried  out  in  two 
sections,  the  first  with  the  weaker  and  the  second  with  the  stronger  vaccine. 
The  dried  brownish  crust  in  the  plates  is  used  in  the  vaccination;  this  material 
can  also  be  stored  for  a  long  time.  For  the  first  vaccination,  0.1  gram  of  the 
material  which  was  heated  at  100°  C.  is  triturated  in  a  disinfected  mortar 
with  5  grams  of  water,  the  contents  of  a  5-gram  Pravaz  syringe.  The  mixture 
is  then  filtered  through  a  clean  piece  of  linen  and  the  filtrate  is  drawn  up  into 
the  syringe,  the  piston  of  which  is  marked  off  in  half-cubic  centimetres  and 
provided  with  a  movable  disk  to  be  used  in  measuring  the  dose.  The  quantity 
of  the  vaccine  injected  into  each  animal  is  0.5  c.c,  so  that  the  syringe  will 
hold  sufficient  for  10  animals. 

The  point  of  the  first  vaccination  is  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  three 
hand-breadths  from  the  tip.  After  the  hair  is  clipped,  the  trocar  which  accom- 
panies the  syringe  is  inserted  obhquely  through  the  skin  and  passed  up- 
wards between  the  skin  and  bones  about  8  cm.;  it  is  then  removed,  the  canula 
of  the  syringe  introduced  through  the  same  wound  and  the  vaccine,  after 
being  mixed  by  shaking  the  syringe,  is  slowly  injected.  To  prevent  the  vac- 
cine from  flowing  out,  the  point  of  entrance  is  compressed  and  the  injected 
fluid  is  pressed  upward  with  the  thumb.  If  any  bleeding  occurs,  the  injection 
is  delayed  until  the  hemorrhage  is  checked,  or  another  place  is  chosen.  Finally, 
a  rubber  bandage  2  cm.  in  width  is  placed  upon  the  point  of  injection  and 
allowed  to  remain  four  hours  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  escape  of 
the  vaccine.  In  this  way,  it  is  said,  20  to  25  animals  can  be  vaccinated  in  an 
hour,  the  animals  being  held  by  three  assistants.  Ten  days  after  the  first 
vaccination,  the  animals  are  vaccinated  with  the  second  or  stronger  vaccine. 
The  second  vaccination  is  carried  out  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first  except 
that  the  injection  is  made  only  two  hand-breadths  from  the  tip.  The  most 
favorable  season  for  vaccination  is  spring,  or  the  close  of  winter.  The  vacci- 
nation is  not  followed  by  any  sequelae.  The  vaccination  experiments  carried 
out  in  different  countries  (France,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Germany)  have 
established  that  the  Lyons  method  of  protective  vaccination  undoubtedly 
reduces  the  mortality  from  black  leg  very  considerably. 

2.  The  Munich  Method  of  vaccination,  or  Kitt's  method,  consists  of 
a  single  subcutaneous  injection  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail.    The  vaccine 


248        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

solution  is  prepared  from  powdered  muscle  which  has  been  attenuated  by 
exposure  to  live  steam  at  97°  C.  (or  by  heating  for  six  hours  at  85  to  90°  C.)- 
More  recently,  pieces  of  muscle  of  different  origin  are  used  in  preparing  the 
vaccine  (polyvalent  vaccine). 

3.  The  Blacklegine  op  Thomas. — Silk  or  cotton  threads  containing 
black  leg  spores  are  inserted  subcutaneously  (back  of  the  shoulder  in  calves) 
and  permitted  to  remain.  The  method  is  recommended  as  very  simple  and 
effective  and  has  given  satisfactory  results  in  Germany  (North  Dithmarsch). 

Swine  Erysipelas. — 1.  The  Lorenz  Method  of  vaccination  and  the 
analogous  Susserin  consists  in  the  simultaneous  injection  of  immune  serum 
(passive  immunization)  and  bouillon  cultures  of  swine  erysipelas  bacilli  (active 
immunization).  The  inoculation  is  made  at  the  base  of  the  ear,  where 
5  c.c.  of  serum  and  0.5  c.c.  of  the  culture  are  injected  eubcutaneously  at 
the  same  time  (simultaneous  vaccination).  The  immunity  established  by 
the  vaccination  continues  about  half  a  year.  Simultaneous  vaccination  has 
proven  very  trustworthy  in  Germany  as  a  protective  and  curative  remedy. 
Recently,  instead  of  the  double  inoculation  only  the  serum  is  injected  in  many 
instances. 

2.  The  Pasteur  Method  comprises  two  injections  of  attenuated  cultures 
of  swine  erysipelas  bacilli  (premier  and  deuxi^me  vaccine)  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  thigh  at  intervals  of  10  to  12  days;  the  first  the  weaker  and  then 
the  stronger  vaccine  (attenuated  by  passing  through  rabbits).  This  method 
established  a  high  and  long-continuing  immunity,  but  is  not  without  danger 
(extension  of  the  disease,  sometimes  great  losses). 

Hog  Cholera. — By  the  use  of  10  to  20  c.c.  of  immune  serum,  obtained 
from  swine  highly  immunized  artificially,  a  passive  immunity  is  established 
which  begins  during  the  period  of  incubation  and  lasts  several  weeks.  The 
immune  serum  also  has  a  curative  effect  on  diseased  animals.  By  the  simul- 
taneous injection  of  immune  serum  (20  c.c.)  and  virulent  blood  (1  to  2  c.c.) 
an  active  immunity  is  produced  which  lasts  for  months;  this  method,  however, 
appears  to  be  not  without  danger,  because  a  part  of  the  vaccinated  swine 
become  affected  with  hog  cholera  and  eliminate  the  virus  of  the  disease. 

[In  the  United  States,  20  c.c.  of  serum  are  injected  for  each  50  pounds  of 
body  weight  both  in  the  serum  alone  and  in  the  simultaneous  method  of 
vaccination.] 

Swine  Plague. — ^The  several  vaccines  recommended  for  swine  plague 
(Septizidin,  Suptol,  Euman,  bivalent  and  polyvalent  serum)  have  not  proven 
reliable  in  practice. 

Calf  Pneumonia. — The  views  concerning  the  value  of  the  different  immune 
eera  (Septizidin,  polyvalent  serum)  are  divided  and  contradictory. 

Calf  Cholera. — ^The  serum  vaccination  of  new-bom  calves  with  polyv- 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        249 

alent  coli  serum  (Jensen)  is  effective,  but  the  protective  vaccination  of  cows 
in  advanced  pregnancy  has,  on  the  contrary,  proven  to  be  without  value. 

Fowl  Cholera. — 1.  Protective  Vaccination  with  Attenuated  Ctji^ 
TURES  According  to  Pasteur. — In  1880,  Pasteur  recommended  the  vaccina- 
tion of  healthy  individuals  with  cholera  baciUi  attenuated  by  cultivation  as 
the  most  effective  method  of  combating  fowl  cholera.  He  found  that  vacci- 
nation with  a  weakened  (mitigated)  vaccine  produced  only  a  local  swelling 
at  the  point  of  inoculation  and  that  the  muscle  tissue  beneath  underwent 
necrosis  without  suppuration.  The  vaccinated  bird  was  sick,  indeed,  but  did 
not  die  and  became  immune  to  the  disease.  Some  chickens,  however,  required 
2  to  3  vaccinations  with  mitigated  vaccine  before  they  acquired  an  immunity. 
Pasteur  therefore  introduced  a  double  vaccination,  first  injecting  a  very  weak 
vaccine  (premier  vaccine)  and  then  a  stronger  one  (deuxieme  vaccine).  The 
baciUi  were  attenuated  by  keeping  them  for  3  to  10  months  under  conditions 
which  permitted  the  entrance  of  air,  whereby,  according  to  Pasteur's  theory* 
their  virulence  was  reduced  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Protective  vaccinations 
were  made  according  to  this  method  by  Cagny,  Hess,  and  Kitt,  and  the  results 
were  very  unfavorable  (spread  of  the  disease,  fatal  cases). 

2.  Serum  Vaccination  has  been  of  doubtful  value  in  Prussia,  but  in 
Denmark  very  favorable  results  have  been  obtained. 

Contagious  Pneumonia  of  Horses. — The  first  serum  vaccinations  were 
made  by  Hell  in  1892.  The  vaccinations  made  the  same  year  in  the  Prussian 
army  to  test  the  new  process  were,  however,  without  effect,  since  the  disease 
occurred  with  the  same  intensity  in  the  vaccinated  horses  as  in  those  which 
had  not  been  vaccinated,  while  many  horses  which  were  not  vaccinated  did 
not  take  the  disease  (P.  Mil.  V.  B.,  1892).  The  reports  concerning  the  vacci- 
nations made  in  the  army  with  blood-serum  in  1893  are  very  contradictory 
(P.  Mil.  V.  B.,  1893).  In  1894,  vaccinations  were  made  in  four  regiments. 
The  results  did  not  speak  favorably  for  the  vaccination;  it  neither  shortened 
the  course  of  the  disease  nor  reduced  the  virulence.  The  isolated  favorable 
results  were  only  apparent  and  are  to  be  explained  by  the  benign  character 
of  the  infection  (P.  Mil.  V.  B.,  1894).  In  1895  the  serum  vaccinations  were 
also  without  effect,  although  every  horse  received  200  grams  of  serum  in  four 
days;  10  weeks  after  the  vaccinations  10  horses  in  one  squadron  became  ill 
with  contagious  pneumonia,  some  being  very  severely  affected  (P.  Mil.  V.  B., 
1895).  On  accoimt  of  these  results  the  vaccinations  were  discontinued  in  the 
army  in  1896.  In  1898  Topper  made  a  report  of  his  experiences  with  blood- 
serum  vaccinations  and  stated  that  the  horses  became  immune  6  to  8  weeks 
after  the  injection  of  the  serum.  He  also  stated  that  the  disease  usually  pre- 
vailed in  the  stable  4  to  6  weeks  before  the  vaccinations  were  begun  and  that 
after  the  vaccinations  it  was  always  immediately  checked.    Not  less  than  150 


250        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

grams  of  blood-serum  must  be  injected  and  it  must  be  obtained  from  horses 
in  the  same  stable  which  had  recovered  from  the  disease  and  which  had  been 
free  from  fever  for  at  least  3  to  6  weeks.  As  Topper  did  not  make  his  vacci- 
nations until  4  to  6  weeks  after  the  appearance  of  the  disease,  Schwarznecker 
pointed  out  that  it  was  very  questionable  whether  the  cessation  of  the  out- 
break was  due  to  the  vaccinations  or  to  the  natural  course  of  the  epizootic. 
The  Prussian  military  report  for  1898  shows  that  the  protective  vaccination 
with  blood-serum  is  of  no  practical  value.  Contagious  pneumonia  did  not 
prevail  as  long  in  those  divisions  of  the  army  in  which  no  vaccinations  were 
made  as  in  those  in  which  the  horses  were  vaccinated.  In  the  winter  of  1898- 
99,  Troster  made  serum  injections  in  17  batteries  and  6  squadrons;  each  horse 
receiving  50  grams  of  serum.  The  vaccinations  caused  an  immediate  pause 
of  5  to  36  days  in  the  progress  of  the  epizootic,  but  the  effect  did  not  last  and 
was  insufficient,  since  the  epizootic  was  not  extinguished.  This  brief  protec- 
tion, according  to  Troster,  is  only  of  value  in  the  case  of  a  mobilization,  when 
it  may  be  desirable  to  protect  a  large  number  of  horses  from  infection  for  a 
a  few  days.  All  attempts  to  cure  horses  afifected  with  contagious  pneumonia 
by  vaccination  with  serum  have  failed.  Further  experiments  were  made  by 
Troster  in  1899  on  68  horses  with  a  larger  quantity  of  serum  (500  c.c,  in  two 
portions,  injected  into  the  breast).  The  results  of  this  experiment,  by  no  means 
extensive,  seemed  to  Troster  to  justify  the  conclusion  that  the  injection  of 
such  large  doses  produced  asufficient  immunity,  although  the  amount  of  serum 
required  was  very  difficult  to  obtain.  In  1900  and  1901,  he  vaccinated  784 
and  635  horses  respectively  with  100  to  150  grams  of  active  blood-serum; 
some  of  the  vaccinations  were  effective  (40  days  immunity)  and  some  were  not. 
In  May,  1900,  518  horses  in  Dragoon  Regiment  No.  21  were  vaccinated  by 
him  and  no  effect  was  observed  on  the  spread  of  the  disease;  195  of  the  vacci- 
nated horses  developed  extensive  swellings  and  abscesses  and  some  of  them 
were  not  fit  for  service  for  14  days.  Mieckley  vaccinated  200  horses  with  200 
grams  of  serum  each  in  the  Beberbeck  stud  in  1900.  The  results  were  nega- 
tive. In  spite  of  the  vaccination,  113  horses  became  affected  with  contagious 
pneumonia,  and  of  these  14  died. 

In  the  light  of  these  experiences  there  can  remain  no  doubt  that  serum 
vaccination  for  contagious  pneumonia  is  of  no  value. 

Cow  Pox  Vaccination  of  Man  (Vaccination). — Since  1796  the  lymph  of 
cow  pox  (vaccine)  has  been  used  for  the  protective  vaccination  of  man  against 
smallpox  (variola).  Three  kinds  of  vaccine  are  recognized:  original,  human, 
and  animal.  The  original  vaccine  is  the  lymph  obtained  from  natural  cow 
pox,  which  was  used  in  the  beginning  of  vaccination;  the  human  vaccine  is 
obtained  from  cow  pox  produced  artificially  on  children,  and  the  animal 
vaccine  is  obtained  from  calves.    At  the  present  time,  almost  all  vaccinations 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        251 

are  made  with  animal  vaccine.  The  animal  lymph  is  obtained  in  the  following 
manner:  Healthy  calves  (especially  steer  calves)  one-fourth  to  one-half 
year  old,  which  have  passed  the  tubercuHn  test,  are  inoculated  with  human 
vaccine  in  special  vaccine  institutions  (100  to  200  punctures  or  crucial  inci- 
sions upon  the  shaved  and  cleaned  skin  of  the  abdomen).  On  the  fifth  day  the 
Ijrmph  is  collected  from  the  pox  which  have  developed  with  special  instru- 
ments (clamp  forceps,  capillary  tubes,  lancets,  spatulae,  glass  plates)  and 
conserved  (exclusion  of  air  in  glass  tubes,  glycerin,  thymol,  saUcyUc  acid, 
drying).  The  principal  advantage  of  animal  over  human  lymph  is  the  certain 
avoidance  of  the  transmission  of  disease  from  the  vaccinated  children  to  those 
subsequently  vaccinated  (syphilis,  tuberculosis,  acute  exanthemas).  The 
immunity  established  by  vaccination  continues  for  about  ten  years;  after 
this  time  a  re-vaccination  is  necessary. 

Tuberculosis. — For  the  protective  vaccination  of  cattle  against  tuber- 
culosis von  Behring,  in  1902,  recommended  the  intravenous  injection  of  Uving 
human  tubercle  bacilli  into  calves  3  to  6  weeks  old  (Jennerization,  Bovovac- 
cine).  First,  0.004  gram  of  tubercle  bacilli  suspended  in  4  grams  of  water  is 
injected  into  the  jugular  vein,  and  later  25  times  the  quantity  of  tubercle 
baciUi,  0.01  gram,  suspended  in  4  grams  of  water,  is  injected.  [In  1902, 
Pearson  and  Gilliland  pubUshed  a  report  of  their  experiments  in  which  they 
had  demonstrated  that  it  was  possible  to  immunize  cattle  against  tuberculosis 
(Phila.  Med.  Journal,  Nov.  2,  1902).  These  experiments  were  begun  Sep- 
tember 29,  1900.  They  used  living  tubercle  baciUi  of  the  human  type, 
injecting  0.004  of  dried,  tubercle  bacilH  suspended  in  salt  solution  intrave- 
nously and  four  weeks  later  twice  this  quantity.]  A  similar  method  of  vaccina- 
tion was  recommended  by  Koch  and  Schiitz  (Tauruman),  who  claimed  that 
a  single  intravenous  injection  of  0.01  to  0.03  gram  of  tubercle  bacilli  from 
human  sources  or  of  attenuated  bacilli  from  cattle  would  immunize  cattle 
against  highly-virulent  tubercle  bacilli  of  bovine  origin.  These  methods  of 
protective  vaccination  have  not  proven  of  practical  value  because  only  a 
temporary  immunity  is  established.  The  use  of  vaccine  material  containing 
virulent  tubercle  bacilU  is  also  attended  with  several  disadvantages:  the 
infection  of  the  vaccinated  calves  with  tuberculosis,  the  infectiousness  of  the 
meat  and  milk  of  the  vaccinated  animals  for  man  (excretion  of  virulent  tubercle 
bacilli  in  the  milk),  the  danger  of  the  vaccination  to  the  veterinarian,  the 
transformation  of  chronic  calf  pneumonia  into  the  acute  form,  and  other 
dangerous  vaccination  accidents  (embolic  pneumonia,  apoplectic  death, 
severe  febrile  disease,  emaciation,  etc.).  Antiphymatol  and  tuberculosan 
have  proven  equally  inefficient. 

Strangles. — The  serum  treatment  of  strangles  (protective  vaccination, 
curative  vaccination)  has  not  proven  reUable  in  Germany.    Experience  with 


252        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

the  different  preparations  of  serum  has  been  unsatisfactory,  especially  in  the 
Prussian  remoimt  depots  and  in  east  Prussia.  In  Denmark,  onthe  other  hand, 
the  protective  action  of  subcutaneous  injections  of  dead  strangles  cocci  [bac- 
terin]  and  the  curative  effect  of  polyvalent  serum  have  attained  a  great  repu- 
tation. Frohner's  experience  with  the  Danish  serum  confirms  the  reports 
of  its  curative  value.  Protective  vaccination  (active  immunization  with 
cocci)  has  been  recently  recommended  in  Germany. 

II.  Curative  Vaccination 

Character. — While  by  protective  vaccination  a  certain  time 
before  the  entrance  of  infection  an  immunity  is  obtained  (pre- 
infection  vaccination),  the  purpose  of  curative  vaccination  (post- 
infection vaccination)  is  to  accomplish  the  same  result  after 
infection  has  taken  place.  The  first  attempt  to  heal  an  already 
infected  body  by  vaccination  was  made  by  Pasteur  in  his  experi- 
ments in  the  cure  of  rabies  (1885).  Then  followed  the  experiments 
of  Koch,  von  Behring,  [Pearson  and  Gilliland],  Kitasato  and  others 
with  tuberculosis,  tetanus,  diphtheria,  pneumonia,  anthrax,  swine 
erysipelas,  etc. 

Curative  Vaccination  in  Rabies. — According  to  Pasteur,  human 
beings  who  have  been  bitten  and  infected  with  rabies  may  be 
subsequently  immunized  by  vaccination  if  they  are  inoculated  in 
a  systematic  manner  with  attenuated  virus.  A  piece  of  the  dried 
spinal  cord  of  a  rabbit  2  to  3  cm.  long  (see  p.  242)  is  rubbed  up 
with  sterile  bouillon,  forming  an  emulsion,  of  which  M  to  54 
c.c.  is  immediately  injected  under  the  skin  of  the  abdomen.  In 
the  beginning  a  very  weak  vaccine  is  injected,  and  at  each  suc- 
ceeding injection  a  somewhat  stronger  vaccine  is  used.  Pasteur^s 
work  was  confirmed  by  Contani,  Metschnikoff,  UUmann,  Bujwid, 
Bardach,  R.  Koch  and  others.  It  was  not  accepted,  however,  by 
von  Frisch,  Hogyes,  de  Renzi,  Bordoni-Uffreduzzi  and  others. 

Curative  Vaccination  in  Swine  Erysipelas. — In  the  use  of  swine 
erysipelas  serum  in  protective  vaccination,  very  many  cases  have 
been  observed  in  which  swine  affected  with  erysipelas  have  ap- 
parently been  cured  when  the  serum  was  injected  early,  6  to  12 
hours  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  symptom,  and  in  large 
(10  to  30  c.c.)  and  repeated  doses. 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        253 

Curative  Vaccination  in  Tetanus. — The  curative  action  of 
tetanus  antitoxin  in  tetanus  of  man  was  discovered  by  von  Behring 
in  1896.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  frequently  employed  in 
veterinary  medicine  in  tetanus  of  horses.  At  first  its  action  as  a 
curative  agent  appeared  to  be  favorable,  but  later  the  failures 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  now  used  only  in  isolated 
cases.  In  the  Prussian  army,  from  1896  to  1907,  129  horses 
affected  with  tetanus  were  treated  with  the  antitoxin  and  85, 
or  66  per  cent.,  died.  During  the  years  previous  to  the  use  of 
the  serum  the  mortality  was  as  follows:  in  1881,  55  per  cent.; 
1882,  57  per  cent.;  1884,  65  per  cent.;  1885,  62  per  cent.;  1887, 
67  per  cent.;  1888,  66  per  cent.;  1892,  65  per  cent.  In  the  light  of 
these  figures  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  use  of  the  antitoxin  in  the 
years  from  1896  to  1907  exerted  a  favorable  influence  upon  the 
disease. 

Recently,  it  was  announced  that  the  preparations  of  anti- 
toxin heretofore  used  were  too  weak  and  that  the  material  had  been 
employed  in  insufficient  quantity.  It  was  also  stated  that  the 
antitoxin  must  be  injected  as  early  as  possible,  immediately  after 
the  diagnosis  is  made,  preferably  intravenously,  and  the  injec- 
tions repeated  until  improvement  occurs.  Sawamura  (Bern,  1909), 
in  experiments  with  rabbits  affected  with  tetanus  ascendens  endo- 
neural, found  that  their  life  was  saved  when  the  antitoxin  was 
injected  not  later  than  17  hours  after  the  appearance  of  the  first 
tetanic  symptom.  In  order  to  test  the  value  of  this  new  antitoxin, 
Frohner  obtained  500  c.c.  of  it  from  Marburg  in  the  summer  of 
1910.  The  cost  of  the  500  c.c.  was  twenty-five  dollars,  five  dollars 
per  dose  (100  c.c).  Without  selection,  the  first  two  cases  of 
tetanus  entered  in  his  clinic  were  treated  with  the  antitoxin  accord- 
ing to  the  accompanying  directions,  while  the  third  and  fourth 
cases  received  no  treatment.  Both  of  the  horses  which  received 
the  antitoxin  immediately  after  the  diagnosis  was  made  in  the 
first  stages  of  the  disease  died,  while  the  other  two,  which  received 
no  antitoxin,  recovered.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  new 
antitoxin  is  not  a  reliable  curative  agent  in  tetanus. 


254        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

Curative  Vaccination  in  Hog  Cholera. — The  serum  inoculation 
appears  to  have  been  proven  to  be  also  a  curative  method  (see 
p.  248). 

Curative  Vaccination  in  Tuberculosis. — Tuberculin,  which  was 
recommended  by  Koch  as  a  specific  curative  agent  in  tuberculosis 
in  man,  did  not  prove  to  be  effective  for  this  purpose.  Further- 
more, it  is  of  no  value  as  a  curative  agent  in  tuberculosis  of  cattle. 

Curative  Vaccination  in  Septicaemia. — Several  sera  are  recom- 
mended as  curative  and  protective  remedies  in  the  diseases  caused 
by  streptococci  and  for  the  complications  of  contagious  pneumonia; 
e.g.y  the  anti-streptococcic  serum  of  Marmorek  and  the  sera  against 
purpura  hemorrhagica  of  Lignieres  and  Jensen.  The  reports 
concerning  the  action  of  these  sera  are  contradictory.  The  Danish 
polyvalent  serum  against  purpura  hemorrhagica  (Jensen)  proved 
effective  in  a  case  treated  by  Frohner. 

Organotherapy. — ^The  terms  organotherapy,  tissue-fluid  therapy,  and 
opotherapy  are  used  to  designate  the  use  of  animal  organs  as  curative  agents. 
Testicles,  thyroid  glands,  ovaries,  prostates,  liver,  etc.,  as  such,  or  in  the  form 
of  special  preparations  (spermin,  thyroidin,  iodothyrin,  etc.),  are  used  in 
impotence  (spermin),  goitre  and  myxcedema  (thyroidin,  iodoth5rrin)  and 
diseases  of  the  ovaries,  prostates,  liver,  etc.,  being  administered  internally. 
Only  the  preparations  of  the  thyroid  gland  in  goitre  and  myxcedema  appear 
to  have  an  undisputed  action.  Experiments  in  Germany  with  the  other 
opotherapeutic  preparations  have  usually  resulted  negatively. 

III.  Diagnostic  Inoculation 

Purpose. — The  object  of  diagnostic  inoculation  is  to  ascertain 
experimentally  the  identity  of  the  disease  in  cases  in  which  a 
certain  demonstration  and  positive  recognition  of  the  infection  is 
not  possible  with  the  usual  cUnical  methods.  This  is  accompHshed 
by  artificially  inoculating  healthy  experimental  animals  with 
infected  masses  (blood,  nasal  discharge,  vaginal  discharge,  pus, 
milk,  faeces)  in  order  to  produce  a  typical  picture  of  the  disease 
(inoculation  of  other  animals),  or  by  inoculating  the  originally- 
diseased  animal  (self-vaccination,  auto-inoculation).    In  a  certain 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        255 

sense,  injections  of  tuberculin  and  mallein  belong  to  the  latter 
method  of  inoculation. 

Inoculation  of  Other  Animals. — This  method  of  inoculation  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosing  anthrax,  glanders,  tuberculosis, 
fowl  cholera,  swine  erysipelas,  hog  cholera,  swine  plague,  strangles, 
contagious  pneumonia  of  horses,  hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  black 
leg,  rabies,  malignant  oedema  and  Canadian  horse  pox. 

1.  Anthrax. — ^Although  the  protective  vaccination  for  anthrax 
is  subcutaneous,  the  diagnostic  inoculation  is  made  cutaneously  in 
order  to  avoid  mixed  infection.  The  best  animals  for  inoculation 
are  mice,  rabbits  and  guinea-pigs;  the  best  inoculation  materials 
are  the  blood  and  spleen  pulp.  Mice  are  inoculated  on  the  end  of 
the  ear  after  the  tip  has  been  clipped  off;  rabbits  and  guinea-pigs 
are  inoculated  in  slight  scratch-wounds  on  the  ears.  If  anthrax 
is  present,  the  inoculated  animal  dies  in  two  to  three  days;  on 
post-mortem  examination  numerous  characteristic  anthrax  bacilli 
are  found  in  the  blood. 

2.  Black  Leg. — Guinea-pigs  are  used  as  inoculation  animals. 
Rabbits  are  immune  to  black  leg  but  are  very  susceptible  to  an- 
thrax. If  guinea-pigs  and  rabbits  are  inoculated  simultaneously 
with  the  same  material  and  only  the  guinea-pigs  die,  then  black 
leg  is  probably  present.  Inoculated  guinea-pigs  continue  to  live 
if  they  are  treated  with  black-leg  serum.  In  contrast  with  anthrax, 
the  inoculations  are  made  subcutaneously  only  and  not  cuta- 
neously. The  subcutaneous  inoculation  of  guinea-pigs  is  the  most 
important  diagnostic  method  in  doubtful  cases  and  in  question- 
able post-mortem  findings. 

3.  Glanders. — Several  male  guinea-pigs  are  inoculated  simul- 
taneously with  the  suspected  material  (pus).  The  inoculations 
are  made  subcutaneously  in  the  abdominal  region — a  fold  of  skin 
is  cut  with  small  scissors  and  a  pocket  is  formed  into  which  the 
material  is  inserted;  or,  the  material  is  injected  intraperitoneally. 
Fourteen  days  after  the  subcutaneous  injection,  if  glanders  is 
present,  characteristic  sjmaptoms  appear.  The  point  of  inocula- 
tion has  been  transformed  into  an  ulcer,  in  the  proximity  of  which 


256        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

nodular  swellings  of  the  lymph  glands  up  to  the  size  of  a  hazel- 
nut may  be  felt;  later,  these  rupture;  on  post-mortem  examination, 
purulent  lymph  glands  and  glanders  abscesses  are  found,  the  latter 
especially  in  the  testicles  (glandular  orchitis);  also  glandular 
nodules  in  the  spleen,  liver  and  lungs.  A  negative  result  from  the 
inoculation  does  not  exclude  the  presence  of  glanders.  When  the 
result  is  positive,  a  diagnosis  of  glanders  is  only  justified  when  the 
bacillus  mallei  is  also  demonstrated  in  cultures  (pseudo-glanders!). 
Other  inoculation  animals  are  the  horse  and  the  ass,  the  latter 
contracting  acute  glanders  and  usually  dying  in  about  8  days; 
also  cats,  which,  after  subcutaneous  (dorsal)  inoculation,  present 
symptoms  similar  to  those  exhibited  by  guinea-pigs.  Concerning 
injection  with  mallein,  see  page  260. 

4.  Tuberculosis. — The  best  inoculation  animal  is  the  guinea- 
pig.  After  the  usual  intraperitoneal  inoculation  (milk),  numerous 
fresh  tubercles  of  the  size  of  millet  seed  appear  in  about  three 
weeks  upon  the  peritoneum  and  in  the  spleen,  liver,  and  lymph 
glands.  Following  subcutaneous  injection  (mucus  from  the 
lungs),  a  purulent  ulcer  develops  at  the  point  of  injection  and  the 
neighboring  lymph  glands  become  swollen;  after  3  to  4  weeks 
numerous  tubercles  form  in  the  internal  organs.  After  intra- 
muscular inoculation  (rapid  inoculation),  the  neighboring  lymph 
glands  are  transformed  in  ten  days  into  firm  nodules  of  the  size 
of  small  peas,  which  may  be  extirpated  and  examined  microscopic- 
ally. Intramammary  inoculation  and  subcutaneous  injection  with 
simultaneous  crushing  of  the  lymph  glands  are  followed  in  five 
days  by  the  appearance  of  nodular  swellings  in  the  glands  con- 
cerned. Test  inoculations  of  guinea-pigs  is  the  most  certain  method 
of  clinically  diagnosing  tuberculosis.  Concerning  inoculation  with 
tuberculin,  see  page  258. 

Fowl  Cholera. — ^A  pigeon  is  inoculated  subcutaneously  with 
blood  from  a  dead  bird.  A  drop  of  blood  from  the  dead  bird  is 
introduced  under  the  skin  of  the  breast  of  the  pigeon  by  means  of 
a  lancet  to  the  depth  of  a  millimetre.  If  cholera  is  present,  the 
musculature  beneath  the  point  of  inoculation  becomes  necrotic 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        257 

and  yellow  and  the  pigeon  dies  in  12  to  48  hours;  on  post-mortem 
examination  a  characteristic  picture  of  cholera  is  found  (hemor- 
rhagic enteritis)  and  the  specific  cholera  bacilli  are  recovered  from 
the  blood. 

6.  Swine  Erysipelas. — Subcutaneous  inoculation  of  mice 
(skin  pocket)  or  pigeons  (breast)  is  followed  in  24  hours  by  char- 
acteristic sjrmptoms:  dejection,  roughened  hair,  dyspnoea,  mucous 
discharge  from  the  eyes  and  agglutination  of  the  eyelids.  Mice 
die  in  2  to  4  days;  pigeons  in  3  to  4  days;  the  specific  bacilli  are 
found  in  the  blood. 

7.  Strangles. — The  most  suitable  inoculation  animals  are 
white  mice,  which  are  immime  to  glanders.  The  inoculation  is 
made  subcutaneously  in  the  sacral  region  with  a  drop  of  pus  or 
nasal  discharge.  Death  usually  occurs  in  3  to  6  days  and  on 
post-mortem  examination  a  pronounced  picture  of  septicaemia  is 
presented  (enlarged  spleen,  cloudy  swelling  of  the  internal  organs, 
exudate  in  the  body  cavities,  blood  infiltration  at  the  point  of 
inoculation);  in  the  blood,  the  specific  strangles  cocci  are  found. 
More  rarely,  the  animals  die  in  10  to  20  days  with  symptoms  of 
metatastic  pyaemia.  Field  mice  react  only  locally  to  strangles  inoc- 
ulation, which  is  contrary  to  their  behavior  to  glanders  inoculation. 

8.  Rabies. — The  best  method  is  the  intra-ocular  inoculation 
of  rabbits  with  the  brain  substance  of  the  suspected  dog;  the 
material  should  be  obtained  in  as  fresh  condition  as  possible. 
After  12  to  14  days,  the  inoculated  animal  dies  of  dumb  rabies. 
Intramuscular  and  subconjunctival  injection  are  also  simple 
methods,  but  the  subdural  (mtracranial,  lumbar)  and  mtracerebral 
inoculation  of  rabbits  is  more  complicated. 

9.  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia. — Rabbits  and  mice  die  in  6 
hours  after  cutaneous  and  subcutaneous  inoculation,  and  in  12 
to  24  hours  after  inoculation  by  feeding;  large  numbers  of  the 
bacilli  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  are  found  in  the  blood;  a  further 
characteristic  in  rabbits  is  hemorrhagic  tracheitis. 

10.  Malignant  (Edema. — Only  subcutaneous  inoculations  are 
effective  with  mice  and  guinea-pigs;  cutaneous  inoculations  are 

17 


258        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

without  effect  (contrary  to  anthrax).  The  moculated  animals  die 
in  8  to  14  hours  with  sjonptoms  of  an  extensive  subcutaneous 
cedema,  in  which  the  characteristic  bacilli  are  easily  demonstrated. 
Guinea-pigs  are  also  inoculated  subcutaneously  for  black  leg. 

Tuberculin  Injection. — Tuberculin  is  obtained  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  bouillon  cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  and  is  official  [in  Ger- 
many] in  two  forms:  as  fluid  (old  tuberculin)  and  as  dried  tuber- 
culin (dry  tuberculin,  tuberculol).  [In  the  United  States,  the 
evaporated  tuberculin  is  diluted  with  a  ]/2  P^r  cent,  solution  of 
carbolic  acid  before  it  is  sent  out  to  the  practitioner,  the  extent 
of  the  dilution  varying  in  different  laboratories.]  Tuberculous 
animals  are  very  sensitive  to  tuberculin  and  react  to  it  with  fever 
and  local  inflanunation.  This  reaction  mdicates  the  presence  of 
tuberculosis;  not  with  certainty,  it  is  true,  but  yet  with  great 
probability.  Therefore,  tuberculin  is,  after  all,  a  very  valuable 
diagnostic  agent.    It  is  employed  according  to  different  methods: 

1.  Subcutaneous  (thermal  reaction). 

2.  Conjunctival  (ophthalmic  reaction,  eye  test). 

3.  Cutaneous  and  intracutaneous  (dermal  reaction). 

1.  The  Subcutaneous  Tuberculin  Test  (thermal  reaction) 
is  the  oldest  method.  Fluid  tuberculin  diluted  [in  Germany] 
with  ten  times  the  amount  of  H  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution 
is  injected  under  the  skin.  The  dose  of  the  tuberculin  for  cows 
is  0.5  gram,  for  calves  0.1  gram.  [The  dose  of  the  preparations  of 
tuberculin  used  in  the  United  States  varies  from  1  c.c.  to  4  c.c, 
depending  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  evaporated  tuberculin  has 
been  diluted  with  the  J^  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution.]  The 
diagnostic  reaction  consists  of  a  rise  of  temperature  of  at  least 
2*  F.,  which  occurs  12  to  15  hours  after  the  injection.  [It  is  very 
generally  agreed  that  a  reaction  may  occur  or  begin  at  any 
time  from  the  9th  to  the  20th  hour  after  injection,  and  it  is 
therefore  considered  necessary  to  begin  the  temperature  measure- 
ments not  later  than  the  9th  hour  and  to  continue  them  in  all 
cases  until  at  least  the  20th  hour  after  the  tuberculin  is  injected. 
In  any  case  in  which  the  temperature  is  rising  at  the  20th  hour, 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        259 

the  temperature  measurements  should  be  continued  until  the 
temperature  begins  to  fall  or  until  a  reaction  occurs.  American 
veterinary  sanitary  authorities  recommend  that  at  least  three 
temperature  measurements  be  taken  before  the  tuberculin  is 
injected,  at  intervals  of  2  or  3  hours,  and  that  the  tuberculin  be 
injected  preferably  between  6  and  9  p.m.]  The  disadvantages  of 
the  subcutaneous  method  are  that  it  is  misleading  in  13  per  cent, 
of  the  cases  tested  (incorrect  diagnosis);  that  it  requires  a  great 
amount  of  time,  as  at  least  two  temperature  measurements  must 
be  taken  before  and  four  after  the  injection;  that  it  cannot  be 
applied  to  animals  in  a  febrile  condition;  that  cattle  previously 
injected  with  tuberculin  will  not  react  to  the  usual  dose  but  require 
five  times  the  quantity;  that  the  general  condition  and  the  milk 
secretion  is  influenced  unfavorably  by  the  reaction  fever,  and 
that  now  and  then  chronic  tuberculosis  is  transformed  into  the 
acute  form.  [According  to  American  statistics,  errors  in  diag- 
nosis are  much  fewer  than  are  indicated  by  the  German  figures 
given  above.  Statistics  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  2  show  that  of  24,784  cattle  which  reacted  to  tuberculin 
from  1893  to  1908,  24,387  were  found  to  be  tuberculous  on  post- 
mortem, which  is  only  1.07  per  cent,  failures.] 

2.  The  Ophthalmic  Test  (ophthalmic  reaction,  conjunctival 
reaction)  has  been  recently  given  the  preference  [in  Germany] 
over  the  subcutaneous  method  on  account  of  its  greater  certainty, 
simplicity,  cheapness,  and  harmlessness,  and  also  because  it  is  not 
influenced  by  the  presence  of  fever  or  by  a  previous  subcutaneous 
injection.  It  is  applied  in  the  following  manner:  four  drops  of  a 
5  per  cent,  solution  of  dry  tuberculin  or  of  a  25  per  cent,  solution 
of  tuberculol  are  introduced  into  the  conjunctival  sac,  or  a  quantity 
of  a  1  to  2  per  cent,  tuberculin  vaseline  the  size  of  a  pea  is  placed 
in  the  conjunctival  sac  with  a  glass  rod.  A  typical  purulent  dis- 
charge from  the  eye  and  a  pronounced  oedema  appear  in  12  to 
14  hours.  Rectal,  vaginal,  and  nasal  applications  have  the  same 
effect.     [In  Pennsylvania,  an  alcoholic  precipitate  of  a  glycerin 

2  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  p.  99. 


260        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

bouillon  culture  of  tubercle  bacilli  suspended  in  physiological  salt 
solution  is  used.  Two  suspensions  are  made,  one  containing  4  per 
cent,  of  the  precipitate  and  the  other  8  per  cent.  Two  drops  of  the 
4  per  cent,  suspension  are  placed  in  the  eye  to  sensitize  it,  and  4 
days  later  two  drops  of  the  8  per  cent,  suspension  are  placed  in  the 
same  eye.  The  reaction  occurs  in  6  to  14  hours.  As  yet,  however, 
the  test  has  not  been  substituted  for  the  subcutaneous  test.] 

3.  The  Cutaneous  and  Intracutaneous  method  consists  in 
the  application  of  a  concentrated  tuberculin  solution  to  the 
shaved  or  scarified  skin,  or  its  injection  into  the  tissue  of  the  cutis. 
The  dermal  reaction  is  a  pronounced  cedematous,  puffy  swelling 
at  the  place  of  inoculation  (lateral  surface  of  the  neck,  caudal- 
anal  fold). 

In  order  to  insure  the  greatest  possible  certainty  in  diagnosis, 
it  is  recommended  that  all  three  tests,  the  subcutaneous,  con- 
junctival, and  cutaneous,  be  applied  (simultaneous  method). 

Mallein  Injection. — Fluid  mallein  (raw  mallein),  obtained  by 
the  evaporation  of  cultures  of  glanders  bacilli,  and  dry  mallein, 
an  alcohohc  precipitate  of  the  fluid  mallein,  are  introduced  into 
the  animal  body  in  order  to  utilize  for  diagnostic  purposes  the 
excessive  sensibility  of  infected  animals  to  mallein,  manifested  in 
the  form  of  local  symptoms  of  inflammation  or  symptoms  of  a 
general  febrile  affection.  According  to  the  place  of  application 
of  the  mallein  (conjunctiva,  subcutis,  cutis),  three  methods  of 
malleinization  are  distinguished: 

(a)  The  ophthalmic  test  or  ophthalmic  reaction. 

(b)  The  subcutaneous  test  or  thermal  reaction. 

(c)  The  cutaneous  test  or  cuti-reaction. 

(a)  The  Ophthalmic  Test  (ophthalmic  reaction,  conjunctival 
malleinization)  is  applied  by  introducing  into  the  conjunctival 
sac  with  a  brush  or  dropper  a  few  drops  of  fluid  mallein  (0.2  c.c. 
or  0.2  gram  per  horse,  0.5  c.c.  or  0.5  gram  for  5  horses),  or  a  few 
drops  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  dry  mallein  [precipitated  mallein]. 
The  other  eye  serves  as  a  control.  The  specific  reaction  usually 
begins  5  to  6  hours  after  the  instillation  and  continues  36  to  48 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        261 

hours.  It  consists  of  a  purulent  discharge  from  the  eye,  congestion 
and  swelling  of  the  conjunctiva,  and  swelling  and  agglutination  of 
the  eyelids.  The  result  of  the  test  is  to  be  determined  at  the 
twelfth  hour  after  the  instillation  at  the  earliest,  and  at  the  twenty- 
fourth  hour  at  the  latest.  A  positive  reaction  is  a  certain  indica- 
tion of  the  presence  of  glanders.  On  the  other  hand,  the  presence 
of  glanders  is  not  positively  excluded  by  a  single  negative  reaction, 
but  only  when  a  second  test  three  weeks  after  the  first  also  gives  a 
negative  reaction.  In  the  early  stages  of  glanders  the  hypersensi- 
tiveness  to  mallein  is  absent;  it  does  not  appear  until  toward  the 
second  week  after  the  infection.  In  doubtful  cases  (serous  or  mucous 
discharge  from  the  eye),  the  eye  test  sometimes  gives  a  positive  re- 
sult when  repeated  on  the  same  day  (sensitization) .  With  a  positive 
reaction,  an  increase  of  temperature  to  over  38.5°  C.  [101. S'^  F.]  usu- 
ally occurs  in  24  hours  which  is  also  of  diagnostic  importance.  The 
presence  of  fever  is  not  a  contraindication  to  the  application  of  the 
eye  test.    (To  be  preferred  to  the  subcutaneous  method.) 

In  recent  years,  the  eye  test  has  been  found  to  be  the  most 
trustworthy,  the  simplest,  the  most  convenient,  the  cheapest,  the 
most  rapid  and,  for  examining  large  numbers  of  horses  (remounts, 
imported  horses),  the  most  suitable  method  of  diagnosing  glanders, 
especially  in  Austria,  where  it  has  been  recognized  by  the  veteri- 
nary sanitary  laws  since  1910  (civil  and  military  laws),  in  Denmark 
and  in  Germany  (Prussia,  Wiirtemburg).  Recently,  it  has  been 
officially  prescribed  in  Bavaria. 

(b)  The  Subcutaneous  Method  or  the  thermal  reaction  con- 
sists [in  Germany]  in  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  0.02  gram  of 
dry  mallein  or  0.5  gram  of  raw  mallein.  [In  the  United  States, 
the  evaporated  glycerin  bouillon  culture  of  bacillus  mallei  is 
diluted  in  the  laboratory  with  J^  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution, 
and  the  quantity  injected  depends  upon  the  extent  of  the  dilution.] 
A  rise  of  temperature  of  over  2°  C.  [3.6°  F.]  during  the  two  days 
following  the  injection,  with  a  typical  temperature  curve  with 
two  apexes,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  positive  indication  of  glanders, 
while  horses  which  do  not  show  any  febrile  reaction  and  those  with 


262        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

a  temperature  rise  of  less  than  1.2°  C.  [2.1°  F.]  are  to  be  considered 
free  from  the  disease.  The  reports  from  different  countries  con- 
cerning the  diagnostic  value  of  subcutaneous  malleinization  are 
contradictory.  [In  the  United  States,  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  and  the  Pennsylvania  Livestock  Sanitary  Board  have 
abandoned  it  for  the  ophthalmic  test.]  A  disadvantage  of  the 
method  is  that  it  cannot  be  applied  to  horses  in  a  febrile  condition. 

[The  directions  for  applying  the  subcutaneous  mallein  test,  as  published 
by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in  1910  and  1912,  are  as  follows: 

The  preferable  site  for  injection  is  on  the  side  of  the  neck  about  the  centre, 
where  any  local  swelling  is  plainly  visible.  The  hair  should  be  clipped  from 
an  area  about  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  skin  thoroughly  cleansed  with  a 
disinfecting  solution,  such  as  5  per  cent,  carbolic  acid.  Carefully  steriUze  the 
syringe  and  needle  before  commencing  the  injection  of  each  group  of  animals, 
and  immerse  the  needle  in  a  disinfecting  solution  before  injecting  each  animal. 
It  is  better  to  use  a  separate  syringe,  needle,  and  thermometer  for  animals 
exhibiting  symptoms  suspicious  of  glanders.  Carbolized  oil,  vaseline,  or  lard 
should  be  used  to  f aciUtate  the  insertion  of  thermometers  and  also  to  disinfect 
them.  On  the  day  of  injection,  the  temperature  of  each  animal  should  be 
recorded  not  less  than  three  times  at  intervals  of  not  less  than  two  hours;  for 
instance,  at  2,  o,  and  8  p.m.  A  careful  clinical  examination  of  each  animal, 
should  also  be  made,  and  to  each  one  some  designation  should  be  given  by 
which  the  animal  will  be  known  throughout  the  test.  Mallein  may  then  be 
injected  at  8  or  10  p.m.,  providing  the  preliminary  temperatures  are  not  ab- 
normal. After  injection  the  temperatures  should  again  be  recorded,  starting 
at  the  expiration  of  not  more  than  10  hours,  and  should  be  repeated  at  intervals 
of  approximately  2  hoiu"s  ujitil  the  expiration  of  at  least  20  hours  from  the 
time  of  injection,  and  should  be  continued  over  a  longer  period  in  the  case 
of  an  animal  with  a  rising  temperature  at  the  twentieth  hour,  if,  at  the  same 
time,  a  local  reaction  ia  present.  What  constitutes  a  reaction  sufficient  to 
warrant  condemnation  of  the  animal  has  been  the  subject  of  many  articles 
and  prolonged  discussion.  The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  adopted  the 
following  uniform  principles  for  judging  the  mallein  test: 

1.  In  order  that  a  reaction  produced  by  mallein  may  be  considered  posi- 
tive it  should  evince  the  characteristics  of  a  typical  reaction;  that  is,  a  combi- 
nation of  thermal,  local,  and  general  reactions. 

2.  By  a  typicfiJ  reaction  is  to  be  understood  a  gradual  rise  of  temperature 
of  at  least  3**  F.  and  to  above  104"  F.,  the  maximum  temperature  being  sus- 
tained in  the  form  of  a  single  or  double  plateau.  It  should  be  accompanied 
by  a  local  as  well  as  a  general  reaction. 


VACCINATION.    IMMUNIZATION.    INOCULATION        263 

The  local  reaction  consists  of  an  infiltration  at  the  site  of  injection,  form- 
ing a  large,  abrupt,  painful  swelling  with  radiating  lymphatics  appearing  as 
raised  cords,  generally  attaining  greatest  prominence  at  from  18  to  21  hours 
after  injection.  The  general  reaction  is  exhibited  by  a  stiffened  gait,  depres- 
sion, loss  of  appetite,  and  accelerated  breathing. 

3.  The  presence  of  a  local  reaction,  especially  when  associated  with  a 
general  reaction,  should  be  regarded  as  evidence  of  glanders,  even  if  the 
thermal  reaction  be  sUght  or  absent. 

4.  Animals  giving  an  atjrpical  reaction  and  those  reaching  a  maximum 
temperature  of  103°  F.  should  be  retested  after  the  expiration  of  not  less  than 
15  days.) 

(c)  Cutaneous  malleinization  consists  of  the  injection  of  mallein 
into  the  scarified  skin  and  the  pronounced  local  swelling  which  is 
produced.  The  method  is  complicated,  technically  difficult  and 
the  reaction  varies  with  the  method  of  application  (superficial  or 
deep  scarification). 

Directions  for  Applying  the  Mallein  Eye  Test. 

I.  Nature  of  the  Test. — Horses  infected  with  glanders  are  hypersensitive 
to  mallein.  They  therefore  react  when  mallein  is  instilled  into  the  conjunc- 
tival sac  with  specific  local  symptoms  of  inflammation.  The  specific  reaction 
is  a  pronounced  redness  and  swelling  and  a  purulent  inflammation  of  the 
conjunctiva  of  the  eyelids,  especially  in  the  inner  canthus  of  the  eye  (drops 
of  pus,  flakes  of  pus  in  the  discharge,  purulent  discharge).  A  serous,  sero- 
mucous  or  mucous  discharge  is  not  specific.  The  specific  reaction  does  not 
begin  immediately,  but  at  the  earliest  5  to  6  hours  after  the  instillation  of  the 
maUein;  it  usually  continues  for  36  to  48  hours,  sometimes  longer.  The  best 
time  to  observe  it  is  from  the  twelfth  to  the  twenty-fourth  hour.  The  sUght 
symptoms  of  irritation  of  the  conjunctiva  (tears,  photophobia,  shght  redness 
of  the  conjimctiva),  which  occur  in  many  horses  very  soon  after  the  mallein 
is  instilled  and  disappear  after  a  few  hours,  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the 
specific  mallein  reaction. 

II.  Application. — ^Either  fluid  mallem  (raw  mallein)  or  dry  [precipitatedl 
mallein  is  used. 

With  a  brush  or  dropper  (eye  pipette),  a  few  drops  of  fluid,  undiluted 
mallein  or  of  a  freshly-prepared  1  per  cent,  solution  of  dry  [precipitated]  mallein 
in  distilled  water  or  physiological  salt  solution  are  introduced  into  the  right 
eye.    The  left  eye  serves  as  a  control. 

In  order  that  the  eye  may  be  examined  for  the  symptoms  of  the  specific 
reaction  in  daylight,  it  is  recommended  that  the  test  be  begun  in  the  morning 


264         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

or  in  the  evening.  When  the  mallein  is  instilled  in  the  morning,  the  reaction 
will  appear  at  the  earUest  in  the  afternoon;  when  it  is  made  in  the  evening, 
the  first  observation  of  the  eye  can  be  made  the  next  morning. 

Since  drops  of  pus  flowing  from  the  eye  and  sticking  to  the  hair  may  be 
thrown  off  by  movements  of  the  head  and  thus  escape  detection,  restless  horses 
should  be  tied  up  short  during  the  test. 

The  presence  of  fever  does  not  interfere  with  the  application  of  the  test. 

The  test  does  not  influence  the  blood  test. 

III.  Judgment. — The  test  may  terminate  in  three  ways:  positive,  nega- 
tive, doubtful. 

The  reaction  is  positive  if  a  purulent  discharge  from  the  eye  occurs  in 
12  to  24  hours. 

The  reaction  is  negative  if  a  discharge  from  the  eye  does  not  appear  in 
12  to  24  hours. 

The  reaction  is  doubtful  if  after  12  to  24  hours  only  a  serous,  eeromucous 
or  mucous  discharge  occurs  from  the  eye,  or  if  only  a  drop  of  purulent  secretion 
collects  in  the  inner  canthus  of  the  eye  without  any  discharge. 

The  judgment  of  the  test  is  based  upon  the  following  principles: 

1.  The  presence  of  glanders  is  assumed  as  probable  if  a  positive  reaction 
occurs  12  to  24  hours  after  the  instillation  of  the  maUein. 

2.  The  absence  of  glanders  is  assumed  as  probable  if  a  negative  reaction 
occurs  12  to  24  hours  after  the  instillation  of  the  mallein  and  if,  in  addition, 
a  negative  reaction  is  again  obtained  upon  a  repetition  of  the  test  three  weeks 
later.  (In  the  initial  stages  of  glanders  the  hypersensitiveness  to  mallein  is 
absent;  this  appears  only  toward  the  second  week  after  infection.) 

3.  If  the  reaction  to  the  first  test  is  doubtful,  a  second  test  is  begun  on 
the  same  day.  If  the  reaction  to  the  second  test  is  positive,  the  presence  of 
glanders  is  assmned  as  probable.  If  the  reaction  to  the  second  test  is  negative 
or  doubtful,  then  a  third  test  is  made  after  3  weeks.  If  the  reaction  to  the 
third  test  is  negative,  it  is  assmned  as  probable  that  glanders  is  not  present. 
If  the  reaction  to  the  third  test  is  positive,  the  presence  of  glanders  is  assumed 
as  probable.  If  the  reaction  to  the  third  test  is  doubtful,  the  horse  remains 
under  suspicion  of  glanders. 


WATER  AS  A  REMEDY.    HYDROTHERAPY 

Synonyms:  Hydrotherapy,  hydriatrics,  balneotherapy,  Priessnitz's* 
cure,  water-cure. 

General. — Water  has  been  employed  as  a  healing  remedy 
smce  ancient  times.  In  spite  of  this,  it  is  not  possible  to  present 
to-day  a  clear,  scientific  analysis  of  its  method  of  action.  Some  of 
the  undoubted  successes  of  hydrotherapy  are  still  based  upon  pure 
empiricism  (Priessnitz),  and  cannot  at  this  time  be  scientifically 
explained  at  all,  or  only  incompletely.  The  difficulty  of  placing 
hydrotherapy  on  a  rational  foundation  is  due  to  the  circumstance 
that  the  effect  of  water  upon  the  body  is  very  complicated.  Several 
very  different  factors  apparently  cooperate  in  the  water-cure. 
Not  only  the  water  itself,  but  also  its  temperature  and  likewise 
certain  mechanical  factors  appear  to  exert  a  combined  action. 
The  continuance  of  the  application  and  the  change  from  cold  to 
warm  water  are  also  of  importance.  Among  the  different  proper- 
ties of  water,  the  irritant  action  of  cold  water  upon  the  skin  is  of 
the  greatest  consideration  in  veterinary  therapeutics.  The  internal 
use  of  water  (mineral  water),  as  ordinarily  employed  in  human 
medicine,  is  not  practicable  in  veterinary  medicine.  As  with  the 
other  cutaneous  irritants,  the  effect  of  water  upon  the  body  is 
very  extensive,  which  accounts  for  the  frequent  use  of  hydro- 
therapy in  the  most  varied  disease  conditions. 

Actions. — 1.  Upon  the  skin  water  has  in  the  first  place  a 
cleansing  effect,  and  consequently  in  a  certain  sense  a  disinfectant 
action.  In  addition,  when  its  influence  is  long  continued,  it  brings 
about  a  swelluig  and  loosening  (maceration)  of  the  epithelial  cells, 
with  increased  desquamation  of  the  same.  Since  the  capacity  of 
cold  water  for  heat  is  very  great,  it  takes  up  heat  from  the  body 

1  Vincent  Priessnitz,  agriculturist  in  Grafenberg,  Austrian  Silesia;  lived 
from  1799  to  1851,  and  founded  in  1826  the  first  hydropathic  establishment. 

265 


266        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

when  applied  locally  or  generally  and  therefore  operates  as  an 
antipyretic  in  conditions  of  abnormally  high  temperature.  Cold 
and  hot  water  act  as  cutaneous  irritants,  producing  at  first  a  con- 
traction of  the  cutaneous  vessels  and  of  the  smooth  muscle  of  the 
skin  with  a  consequent  anaemia,  followed  by  a  pronounced  reactive 
relaxation  of  the  vessels  of  the  skin  and  of  the  underlying  parts 
with  a  decided  hyperaemia  of  the  same.  On  this  account,  cold 
water  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  epispastic  rubefacient  which  not  only 
influences  and  changes  the  local  circulatory  relations  of  the  skin 
and  the  tissues  beneath  it  (subcutis,  tendons,  tendon  sheaths, 
muscles,  articulations,  bones)  but  also,  when  used  extensively, 
affects  the  blood  distribution  of  the  entire  body,  causing  the  blood 
to  flow  from  the  centre  of  the  body  to  the  periphery  and  depleting 
the  internal  organs.  While  cold  water  produces  a  passive  hyper- 
aemia, hot  water,  and  moderately  warm  water  when  the  application 
is  long  continued  (cataplasms),  generate  an  active  hyperaemia. 
These  actions  upon  the  skin  point  to  numerous  indications  for  the 
treatment  of  local  diseases  of  the  skin,  the  subcutis,  the  mus- 
culature, tendons,  bones  and  articulations  as  well  as  general  febrile 
and  internal  diseases.  Furthermore,  the  hyperaemia  produced 
considerably  stimulates  the  secretory  activity  of  the  skm  (water, 
urea  and  metabolic  products),  sometimes  even  to  the  extent  of  pro- 
ducing perspiration.  Since  a  relation  exists  between  the  secretory 
functions  of  the  skin  and  different  internal  organs,  especially  the 
kidneys  and  limgs,  a  therapeutic  action  may  be  exerted  upon  these 
organs  by  the  use  of  water.  Depending  upon  the  temperature, 
water  exerts  a  stimulant  action  upon  nerves  or  exerts  a  sedative 
effect  in  abnormal,  painful  conditions. 

Of  great  practical  importance  in  all  these  cases,  in  addition  to 
the  temperature  of  the  water,  is  the  continuance  of  its  action  and  a 
change  from  cold  to  warm.  In  reference  to  the  temperatiure,  a 
distinction  must  be  made  between  cold  (0-15°  C),  tepid  (15- 
30**  C),  warm  (30-38°  C.)  and  hot  (38°  C.  and  above).  Only  cold 
and  hot  water  exert  a  pronounced  action  as  cutaneous  irritants 
in  the  manner  described  above.     Warm  water  corresponding  in 


HYDROTHERAPY  267 

temperature  to  that  of  the  body  is  indifferent,  and  the  action  of 
tepid  water  is  weak.  The  colder  or  the  warmer  the  water  in  com- 
parison to  the  body  temperature  of  the  animal,  the  more  pro- 
nounced is  its  action  upon  the  skin.  In  regard  to  the  continuance 
of  action,  when  cold  water  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  tem- 
perature its  application  must  naturally  be  continued  as  long  as 
possible.  But  if  the  water  is  employed  as  a  cutaneous  irritant, 
then  the  therapeutic  effect  is  in  direct  relation  to  the  shortness  and 
frequency  of  the  individual  applications.  When  a  single  applica- 
tion of  cold  water  produces  a  reaction  in  the  skin  in  the  form  of  a 
change  in  the  circulatory  relations  (hypersemia),  the  condition  dis- 
appears after  a  certain  interval,  and  a  renewal  of  the  cutaneous 
irritation  is  naturally  required  to  again  bring  about  the  same 
reaction  with  its  healing  effects  upon  the  organism.  One  long- 
contmued  application  of  cold  water  produces  only  a  single  reaction, 
which  occurs  in  the  beginning.  For  these  reasons  frequent  applica- 
tions are  indicated,  and  on  this  accoimt  Priessnitz  dressings,  for 
example,  are  changed  frequently  (on  the  average  every  3  hours). 
The  effects  produced  under  these  circumstances  are  as  follows: 
When  the  dressing  which  has  been  dipped  in  cold  water  is  first 
applied,  ansemia  and  cooling  of  the  skin  occurs;  this  is  gradually 
followed  by  a  hyperaemia,  which  is  contmued  several  hours  and 
which  is  promoted  by  the  warm  overlying  dressing.  After  this 
period,  the  circulatory  relations  are  again  equalized  and  in  order  to 
produce  a  new  reaction  the  cold  irritant  must  be  renewed;  i,e,,  a 
new  cold  dressing  must  be  applied. 

Failure  of  a  patient  to  show  any  reaction  in  the  skin  after  a 
proper  application  of  cold  water  is  evidence  of  great  weakness  of  the 
nervous  system  and  justifies  an  unfavorable  prognosis.  For 
prophylactic  purposes,  the  frequent  use  of  cold  water  in  healthy 
animals  is  recommended  to  facilitate  the  occurrence  of  the  reaction 
and  to  exercise  and  strengthen  the  skin  (cold  rub-down  for  horses 
and  cattle,  washing). 

2.  The  circulatory  apparatus  is  influenced  in  very  different 
directions  by  hydrotherapy.    As  already  observed,  cold  water 


268        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

causes  at  first,  in  consequence  of  irritation  of  the  peripheral  vaso- 
motor centres  (Lenaschew,  Pliigers  Archiv.,  vol.  26),  a  contraction 
of  the  cutaneous  vessels  with  anaemia  of  the  skin,  which  drives  the 
blood  to  the  interior  and  also  increases  the  blood-pressure,  the 
activity  of  the  heart  and  the  internal  temperature.  With  the 
occurrence  of  the  reaction  in  the  skin,  contrary  effects  are  pro- 
duced. The  blood-vessels  dilate,  the  blood  flows  from  the  centre 
to  the  periphery,  and  blood-pressure,  heart  activity,  pulse  fre- 
quency and  internal  temperature  decrease.  It  is  therefore  pos- 
sible to  act  with  hydrotherapy  upon  every  single  factor  of  the  circu- 
lation: upon  the  lumen  and  tension  of  the  blood-vessels,  upon  the 
heart,  upon  the  blood-pressure,  upon  the  blood  distribution  and 
upon  the  blood  heat.  Water  is  consequently  a  valuable  remedy 
in  all  conditions  of  inflammation  and  congestion  and  in  general 
febrile  diseases.  It  is  also  a  derivative  remedy,  particularly  on 
account  of  its  regulating  influence  upon  blood  distribution.  Inter- 
esting investigations  have  been  made  by  Schiiller  (Deutsches 
Archiv.  fiir  Klin.  Medizin,  vol.  14)  concerning  the  derivative  effect 
of  water  upon  the  deeply  situated  organs,  which  are  of  therapeutic 
importance,  especially  in  inflammation  of  the  brain.  In  trephined 
rabbits,  constriction  of  the  vessels  of  the  pia  and  contraction  of  the 
brain  were  observed  after  the  application  of  warm  compresses  to  the 
skin,  while  the  employment  of  cold  dressings  on  the  skin  or  a  cold 
bath  caused  a  dilation  of  the  vessels  of  the  pia.  The  same  action 
apparently  extends  to  the  spinal  cord,  the  lungs  and  the  other  vis- 
cera. These  experimentally  established  facts  justify  scientifically 
the  hydropathic  derivation  which  has  been  hitherto  practised 
empirically,  especially  in  inflammation  of  the  brain,  pneumonia, 
pleuritis  and  peritonitis.  Finally,  since  cold  water  also  increases 
metabolism,  as  is  shown  by  the  increased  elimination  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  the  increased  absorption  of  oxygen  demonstrated  in 
animals  experimentally  by  Rohrig  and  Zuntz,  the  resorbent  effects 
of  external  applications  of  water  in  connection  with  the  stimula- 
tion of  the  circulation  are  readily  understood. 

3.  The  nervous  system  is  affected  in  different  ways,  accord- 


HYDROTHERAPY  269 

ing  to  the  temperature  of  the  water.  Cold  water  stimulates  the 
activity  of  nerve  tissue;  warm  water,  on  the  contrary,  has  a  seda- 
tive effect,  soothing  and  depressing.  Depending  upon  whether 
the  application  of  the  water  is  local  or  general,  a  local  or  total 
alteration  of  innervation  can  be  brought  about,  either  of  the  nature 
of  a  stimulation  or  depression,  which  is  not  possible  with  other 
cutaneous  irritants.  Upon  the  nerves  of  the  skin  the  action  is  direct, 
while  the  other  parts  of  the  nervous  system  are  inJfluenced  reflexly 
through  the  skin  (counter-irritation).  By  the  application  of  cold 
water,  a  weakened  nervous  system  is  stimulated,  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  change  in  circulation  (derivation),  while  warm  water 
applications  depress  an  abnormally  stimulated  nervous  apparatus. 
This  is  true  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  as  well  as  of  the  nerves  of 
the  different  internal  organs,  such  as  the  stomach,  intestines,  kid- 
neys, uterus,  lungs,  heart,  etc.  Well-known  examples  of  these 
actions  of  water  are  the  stimulant  effects  of  cold  and  the  sedative, 
anodyne  effects  of  warm  water  applications  in  colic  of  the  horse 
and  the  favorable  action  of  the  Priessnitz  dressing  iu  abnormal 
sensibility  of  the  larynx  (cough),  pharynx  (difficult  swallowing), 
brain,  musculature  (rheumatism),  articulations  and  tendons 
(mflammation). 

4.  The  body  cells  are  nutritively  stimulated  by  moist  heat 
(cold  acts  reversely)  and  their  function  of  forming  antitoxins  and 
their  regeneration  activity  are  thereby  accelerated.  Local  leu- 
cocytosis  is  also  promoted  by  heat,  but  is  inhibited  by  cold  (see  the 
chapter  on  aeries). 

5.  The  glands  of  the  body  (liver,  kidneys,  pancreas;  gastric, 
intestinal  and  cutaneous  glands)  are  also  influenced  in  different 
ways  by  applications  of  water,  partly  through  the  circulation 
(derivation)  and  partly  through  the  nervous  system  (counter-irri- 
tation). The  secretions  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  in  particular  are 
stimulated  by  cold  and  decreased  by  warm  water  applications. 

6.  The  musculature  has,  as  is  well  known,  special  relations 
with  the  skin;  the  diseases  caused  by  chilling  (rheumatism,  rheu- 
matic haemoglobinaemia  [azoturia])  demonstrate  that  the  two  are 


270        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

intimately  associated.  In  these  diseases,  it  may  be  assumed,  the 
chilling  acts  as  an  abnormal  cutaneous  irritant,  causing  a  disturb- 
ance of  the  circulation,  innervation  and  especially  the  metabolism 
of  the  musculature.  Similar  influences  can  be  exerted  upon  the 
diseased  musculature  by  the  employment  of  hydropathic  dressings, 
the  disturbed  circulation  and  innervation  being  affected  by  deriva- 
tion and  counter-irritation.  Warm  water  is  most  desirable  for  this 
purpose  because  it  at  the  same  time  allays  pain.  Cold  water  is  more 
suitable  to  the  prophylactic  hardening  against  the  diseases  men- 
tioned. Experience  has  taught  that  muscular  rheumatism  as  well 
as  rheumatic  haemoglobinaemia  [azoturia]  can  be  effectively  pre- 
vented by  accustoming  the  skin  to  the  irritation  from  cold  and 
hardening  it  against  the  harmful  results.  Avoiding  too  warm 
stabling  and  covering,  accustoming  to  cold,  and  especially  frequent 
cold  rubbing  down  when  rationally  employed  afford  good  protec- 
tion agamst  these  diseases. 

7.  The  respiration  is  stimulated  by  cold  water.  Cold  appli- 
cations are  therefore  employed  as  stimtilants  in  weakness  and 
paralytic  conditions  of  the  respiratory  centre  (syncope,  poisoning 
by  chloroform)  and  to  strengthen  expiration  in  pulmonary  and 
bronchial  diseases.  On  the  other  hand,  the  diseased  lungs  are 
relieved  by  the  derivation  of  the  blood  from  the  lungs  to  the  skin 
(cutaneous  respiration)  by  means  of  moist,  warm  applications. 
In  these  respects  hydrotherapy  is  of  importance  in  the  treatment  of 
pneumonia  and  other  respiratory  diseases. 

8.  Locally,  cold  at  first  causes  contraction  of  the  arteries  and 
ansemia  (checking  hemorrhage,  antiphlogistic  action),  later  dila- 
tion and  congestion  of  the  veins  with  slowing  of  the  circulation  and 
resorption  and  decrease  of  the  leucocytes.  Moist  heat,  especially 
the  Priessnitz  dressing  and  cataplasms,  promotes  local  blood  cir- 
culation and  cell  activity  and  also  local  leucocytosis  and  the 
formation  of  antitoxins.  Hot  applications  generate  an  active 
hyperaemia,  which  extends  to  a  considerable  depth  (musculature, 
peritoneum)  and  continues  for  24  hours  and  longer;  in  addition, 
the  circulation  of  lymph  and  consequently  resorption  is  stimulated 


HYDROTHERAPY  271 

(hyi)erlymphia,  oedema  formation).     See  the  experimental  inves- 
tigations of  Schaffer.2 

Hyperaemia  as  a  Healing  Remedy. — Bier'  has  drawn  attention  to  the 
favorable  effects  of  chronic  passive  hyperaemia,  produced  artificially  by  elastic 
bandages  and  by  hot-air  apparatuses,  upon  surgical  suppurative  and  inflam- 
matory processes.  Passive  hyperaemia,  like  active  hypersemia,  has  a  resorbent, 
bactericidal  and  anodyne  action  and  stimulates  the  formation  of  new  tissue. 
The  same  effects  are  produced  by  the  continued  employment  of  high  degrees 
of  heat  by  means  of  Ullmann's^  hydro-thermo  regulator,  which  was  introduced 
into  veterinary  surgery  by  Bayer^  and  Eberlein^  and  found  by  them  to  be  of 
value  especially  in  chronic  tendinitis,  tendovaginitis,  shoulder  boils,  exostoses, 
thickening  of  the  skin,  articular  and  muscular  diseases,  wounds  and  ulcers 
of  the  horse  (constant,  regulated  heat  treatment  in  the  form  of  dry  or  moist 
heat).  Upon  the  basis  of  his  experiences  in  the  Vienna  clinic,  Schmidt^  has 
formed  the  following  conclusions  concerning  the  value  of  Bier's  passive  hyper- 
ffimia  in  veterinary  medicine:  The  aspirator  is  most  useful  in  diseases  of  the 
paws  of  small  animals  (phlegmon,  panaritium).  The  rubber  tubing  and  the 
elastic  bandage  can  be  used  on  all  of  the  domestic  animals,  but  the  technique 
presents  numerous  difficulties,  which  are  greater  in  animals  than  in  man. 
Purulent  inflammations  of  the  articulations  and  tendon  sheaths  and  phleg- 
monous processes  in  the  hoof  are  best  suited  to  the  passive  hyperasmic  treat- 
ment. On  account  of  the  technical  difficulties  and  the  dangers  attending  the 
treatment,  however,  it  can  only  be  employed  in  stationary  clinics  under  con- 
tinual control;  its  use  in  general  practice  and  in  polycUnics  is  precluded. 
According  to  Roder^  also,  the  field  for  the  use  of  Bier's  passive  hyperaemia  is 
limited;  he  reconunends  venous  stasis  by  means  of  bandages  in  wounds  of 
the  coronet,  in  contused  wounds  and  after  resection  of  the  lateral  cartilage, 
and  the  employment  of  the  aspirator  in  shoulder  boils.    Kruger,*  as  a  result 

^Schaffer,  Der  Einfluss  imserer  therapeutischen  Massnahmen  auf  die 
Entziindung.    Stuttgart,  1907,  Ferd.  Enke. 

'  Bier,  Die  Hyperamie  als  Heilmittel.    Leipzig,  5.  Aufl.,  1907. 

*  Ullmann,  Wirkungen  und  therapeutische  Verwertung  konstanter  Warme- 
applikationen.    Physiklinisch-medizinische  Monatshefte,  1904. 

*  Bayer,  Der  Hydrothermoregulator.    Zeitschr.  f.  Tiermed.,  1903. 

*  Eberlein,  Der  Hydrothermoregulator.    Berl.  Archiv.,  1905. 

^  Schmidt,  Die  Biersche  Stauungshyperamie  in  der  Tierheilkunde.  Mo- 
natshefte fiir  prakt.  Tierheilkde.,  1907. 

*  Roder,  Dresdener  Naturforscherversanmilung,  1907. 

•Kruger,  Hyperamie  als  Heilmittel  in  der  Tierheilkunde.  Zeitschr.  fur 
Vet.,  1910. 


272         GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

of  his  experiences  in  the  Berlin  Horse-shoeing  School,  agrees  with  Schmidt 
and  Roder  that  passive  hyperaemia,  when  properly  employed  in  suitable  cases, 
is  to  be  regarded  as  a  good  healing  method  in  veterinary  medicine.  Eberiein 
and  Braun^°  have  cured  four  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  temporomaxillary 
articulation  in  the  horse  with  Klapp's  aspirator. 

Uses. — The  external  use  of  water  for  healing  purposes  is  in 
many  cases  similar  to  the  use  of  the  cutaneous  irritants  (see  p.  148). 
The  indications  for  the  employment  of  hydrotherapy  are,  however, 
more  numerous  than  for  the  use  of  cutaneous  irritants.  More- 
over, the  water  is  often  preferred  to  these  drugs  because  of  the 
simplicity  of  its  application  and  the  cheapness  of  the  hydropathic 
apparatuses.  The  most  important  diseased  conditions  treated 
with  water  are  the  following: 

1.  Local  surgical  affections  of  the  skin,  subcutis,  tendons, 
tendon  sheaths,  muscles,  joints,  bones,  and  lymph  glands.  The 
application  of  cold  water  is  indicated  only  in  active  hyperaemia 
and  in  entirely  fresh,  acute  inflammatory  conditions  in  these  parts. 
On  the  other  hand,  warm,  moist  applications  or  cataplasms  are 
indicated  in  all  subacute  and  chronic  inflammations,  in  passive 
hyperaemia  and  in  extravasations  in  the  parts  named.  This  is 
true  especially  of  fluid  and  solid  exudates,  indurations,  old  sweUings 
and  thickenings  of  the  skin,  subcutis,  tendons,  articulations,  bones 
and  muscles,  and  also  of  purulent  inflammations  and  ripening 
abscesses.  The  moist  heat  in  these  cases  dilates  the  vessels,  accel- 
erates the  disturbed  and  sluggish  blood  and  lymph  circulation, 
promotes  metabolism  and  resorption,  softens  hard  inflammatory 
products,  encourages  the  outwandering  of  white  blood-cells  (phago- 
cytosis, histolysis),  accelerates  connective  tissue  formation  and 
cicatrization  and  stimulates  the  formation  of  antitoxins. 

2.  General  febrile  diseases.  The  antipyretic  action  of  cold 
water  in  the  form  of  cold  poultices,  irrigations,  douches,  baths, 
fomentations  and  rectal  infusions  depends  upon  the  withdrawal  of 
heat;  the  cold  must  continue  to  operate  for  a  long  time,  however, 

"  Braun,  Die  Saugbehandlung  nach  Klapp  bei  der  Arthritis  purulenta  dee 
Kiefergelenks  des  Pferdes.    Monatshefte  fiir  prakt.  Tierheilkunde,  1912. 


HYDROTHERAPY  273 

because  a  temporary  application  causes  at  first  a  rise  of  the  internal 
temperature.  Warm,  moist  applications  also  exert  an  antipyretic 
effect,  since  under  their  influence  blood  is  drawn  from  the  centre 
of  the  body  to  the  periphery  and  gives  off  heat;  cooperating  with 
this  action  is  the  influence  upon  the  vasomotor  and  caloric  nerve 
centres. 

3.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pleura,  peritoneum,  brain  and 
spinal  cord,  stomach  and  intestines,  kidneys,  liver,  and  uterus. 
The  hydropathic  effect  of  warm,  moist  applications  consists  of  the 
contraction  of  the  dilated  vessels  in  diseased  internal  organs  and  of 
the  derivation  of  the  blood  to  the  skin. 

4.  (Edema  of  the  lungs,  brain,  and  glottis.  The  action  is  the 
same. 

5.  Muscular  rheumatism.  The  warm,  moist  appUcations  exert 
a  derivative  and  anodyne  action. 

6.  Colic  and  cough.     The  action  is  the  same. 

7.  Paraljrtic  conditions  of  the  nervous  system  (cerebral,  spinal 
and  peripheral  paralyses,  weakness  of  the  loins,  parturient  paresis, 
poisonings,  paresis  of  the  gastric  and  intestinal  musculature). 
Cold  or  hot  water  (cutaneous  irritation,  counter-irritation)  is 
indicated  in  these  conditions. 

8.  Excited  conditions  of  the  nervous  system  (pains,  spasms, 
hyperaesthesia,  increased  reflex  activity).  Warm  water  (sedative 
action)  is  employed  in  these  conditions. 

9.  Exudates  (fluid  and  solid)  in  the  internal  organs.  The 
warm,  moist  applications  promote  the  circulation,  leucocytosis, 
metabolism,  and  resorption. 

10.  Kidney  and  liver  diseases  (stimulation  of  the  secretion, 
derivation). 

11.  Catarrhs  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  (inhalation  of  steam). 

12.  Obesity  (stimulation  of  metabolism). 

Forms  of  Application. — 1.  Priessnitz's  dressing.    This  is  ap- 
plied in  the  following  manner:    The  skin  is  first  covered  with  a 
piece  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  or  a  bandage,  which  has  been  dipped 
in  cold  water,  and  over  this  cold,  wet  dressing  a  dry,  woollen  cover- 
18 


274        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

ing  or  bandage  is  so  applied  that  the  surface  of  the  dressing  re- 
mains entirely  dry  (warm,  moist  poultice).  After  about  1  to  3 
hours,  a  reactive  hypersemia  of  the  skin  has  taken  place  under  the 
bandage  in  the  manner  before  described,  so  that  the  dressing  must 
be  renewed  after  this  period.  A  renewal  of  the  dressing  is  also 
indicated  when  the  inner  layers  of  the  bandage  have  become  dry. 
On  account  of  the  early  occurrence  of  maceration  of  the  skin, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  continue  the  use  of  the  dressing  too 
long;  in  order  to  avoid  inflammation  of  the  skin,  it  is  recommended 
that  the  dressing  be  left  off  over  night  or  every  second  or  third  day. 

2.  Irrigation.  By  this  is  understood  the  irrigation  of  the  body 
or  parts  of  it  with  cold  water  by  means  of  a  rubber  hose.  This 
serves  to  withdraw  heat  generally  and  locally  in  fever  and  in 
inflammations  of  peripheral  parts  (hoofs,  tendons,  joints,  head). 

3.  Douche.  This  is  the  application  of  a  stream  of  cold  water 
with  the  simultaneous  action  of  mechanical  force  (pressure  from  a 
syringe  or  from  water  pipes,  irrigation  from  a  higher  level);  it 
acts  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the  nervous  system,  especially  in 
depressed  conditions  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord. 

4.  Baths.  The  domestic  animals  are  in  general  rarely  sub- 
jected to  complete  baths  for  hydrotherapeutic  purposes;  on  the 
other  hand,  cold  and  warm  local  baths  are  employed  in  different 
forms,  especially  foot  baths  for  horses,  cattle  and  dogs,  for  the 
purpose  of  reducing  temperature,  softening  and  cleansing.  Ac- 
cording to  Wenz  (Dissertation,  Giessen,  1911),  a  preliminary 
warm  bath  increases  the  effect  of  a  succeeding  cold  bath,  while 
the  reverse  of  this  order  is  unfavorable.  Additional  investigations 
on  the  action  and  use  of  baths  on  animals  have  been  published  by 
Lucas  (Berl.  Arch.,  1910). 

5.  Cold  rectal  infusions.  These  serve  to  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture in  fever  and  to  stimulate  intestinal  peristalsis  and  evacuate 
the  rectum;  they  are  used  most  frequently  on  the  horse  (clysters, 
irrigations). 

6.  Clay  poultices.  This  is  the  oldest  form  of  hydrotherapy 
used  in  veterinary  medicine.    The  cooling  effect  is  slight,  accord- 


HYDROTHERAPY  275 

ing  to  Bayer,  the  temperature  being  only  temporarily  depressed 
a  few  degrees. 

7.  Cataplasms.  These  are  effective  especially  because  of  their 
heat  and  moisture. 

Other  forms  of  hydrotherapy  which  may  be  mentioned  are 
simple  cold  and  hot  poultices,  the  ice  poultice  (ice  pack),  Leiter's 
cooling  apparatus,  and  the  different  cold  and  warm  washes.  In 
regard  to  the  use  of  the  thermo-regulator,  see  the  text-books  on 
operations  and  instruments.  This  apparatus  makes  possible  the 
uninterrupted  (24  hours  and  more)  action  of  radiating  heat  of 
42  to  44°  C, 


MASSAGE 

Synonym:     Mechanotherapy. 

Nature  and  Forms. — Massage  is  the  application  of  pressure 
upon  the  skin  and  the  parts  beneath  it.  It  has  been  used  for  a 
long  time  in  veterinary  medicine^  intentionally  in  the  form  of 
rubbing  and  unintentionally  in  the  application  of  ointments.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  oldest  methods  of  healing  used  in  the  treatment 
of  man  (Chinese,  Greeks,  Romans,  primitive  people).  After  being 
forgotten  for  a  long  time  (during  the  entire  middle  ages  up  to 
modern  times),  the  method  was  to  a  certain  extent  rediscovered 
in  Sweden  by  Per  Hendrick  Ling  (Swedish  medical  gymnastics). 
Zander  displaced  the  masseur  by  mechanical  apparatus  (mechano- 
therapy). Mezger,  Mosengeil,  Zabludowski  and  others  have 
recently  built  up  the  method  practically  and  scientifically.  The 
following  varieties  of  massage  are  distinguished: 

1.  Stroking  (Effleurage). — This  consists  in  passing  the 
finger  tips  or  the  flat  of  the  hand  superficially  and  gently  over  the 
skin. 

2.  Rubbing  (Massage  a  Friction). — In  this  variety  of  mas- 
sage, the  skin  is  rubbed  under  strong  pressure. 

3.  Kneading  (Petrissage). — The  part  of  the  body  concerned 
is  pressed  with  the  finger  tips  or  fist  as  dough  is  kneaded. 

4.  Tapping  (Tapotement). — The  diseased  member  is  tapped 
or  struck  at  short  intervals  (edge  of  the  hand,  fist,  stick).  Tapping 
is  employed  in  paralyses  of  muscles  and  nerves  and  as  preliminary 
massage  in  the  neighborhood  of  articulations. 

In  addition,  compression  (constant  pressure),  vibration  (inter- 
mittent pressure  by  special  apparatuses)  and  active  and  passive 
movement  (mechanotherapy  in  the  restricted  sense,  Swedish 
medical  gymnastics)  may  be  considered  as  forms  of  massage. 

Action. — As  in  the  case  of  cutaneous  irritation  and  hydro- 
therapy, the  eJQfect  of  massage  upon  the  body  is  very  extensive. 
276 


MASSAGE  277 

The  action  appears  to  be  not  exclusively  mechanical  but  partly 
djniamic.  The  most  important  local  effects  of  massage  are  a 
cleansing,  stimulant,  anodyne  and  a  dynamic  action.  In  addi- 
tion, massage  produces  important  general  effects.  Its  influence 
upon  the  individual  organs  is  as  follows: 

1.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  and  lymph  is  influenced  by 
massage  first  of  all.  The  action  here  is  the  same  as  that  which 
occurs  during  motion  in  the  vessels  of  the  extremities,  where  the 
venous  blood  and  lymph  is  forced  centripetally  toward  the  heart 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  and  the  tension  of  the  fascia 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  valves  of  the  vessels,  a  process  which 
may  be  called  a  natural  or  physiological  massage.  The  pressure 
exerted  upon  the  body  by  artificial  massage  produces  at  first  an 
anaemia  of  the  parts  concerned  m  consequence  of  the  blood  and 
lymph  being  pressed  out  of  the  veins  and  Ijrmph  vessels  toward 
the  heart.  With  the  cessation  of  the  pressure,  a  large  amount  of 
fresh  blood  flows  into  the  empty  spaces  and  the  area  becomes 
hyperaemic  (aspiratory  and  pressure  action).  The  repeated  alter- 
nate occurrence  of  anaemia  and  hyperaemia  stimulates  and  acceler- 
ates the  circulation  in  the  massaged  parts. 

2.  The  acceleration  of  the  circulation  brings  about  an  increase 
of  metabolism,  leucocjrtosis,  histolysis,  and  local  antitoxin  forma- 
tion, promotes  retrogressive  changes  and  regeneration,  stimulates 
the  resorption  of  the  products  of  fatigue  and  metabolism,  patho- 
logical products,  exudates  and  extravasations,  and  improves  the 
nutrition  of  the  part  massaged  (experiments  of  Mosengeil  with 
pigments  injected  into  the  joints). 

3.  Solid,  fibrinous  exudates  and  blood  coagula  beneath  the 
skin,  in  tendon  sheaths  and  in  joint  cavities  are  mechanically 
crushed  by  massage  and  thus  prepared  for  resorption.  In  addi- 
tion, swellings  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  subcutis, 
musculature,  tendons  and  tendon  sheaths,  joints,  etc.,  are  reduced 
in  volume. 

4.  Contractions  of  the  musculature  are  overcome  by  tapping 
the  muscle;  simple  rubbing  and  stroking  brings  about  hyperaemia 


278        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

with  increased  nutrition  and  blood  formation;  in  addition,  the 
capacity  for  work  is  increased,  as  by  training. 

5.  The  nervous  system  is  stimulated  by  massage  in  the  same 
manner  as  by  cutaneous  irritation.  The  cutaneous  nerves  are 
stimulated  by  kneading  and  tapping  and  the  stimulation  acts 
reflexly  upon  the  central  nervous  system.  Paralyzed  peripheral 
nerves  (motor  and  sensory)  especially  are  treated  by  massage. 
Light  massage  (stroking)  appears  to  reduce  increased  suscepti- 
bility of  nerves. 

6.  Other  general  effects  of  massage  include  increase  of  cardiac 
activity,  pulse  and  body  temperature,  reflex  stimulation  of  gastric 
and  intestinal  peristalsis,  diuresis  and  diaphoresis,  change  in  the 
distribution  of  the  blood  (depletion  of  the  central  organs,  deriva- 
tive action),  improvement  of  the  general  state  of  nutrition  and 
strengthening  of  the  body  constitution. 

Uses. — Massage  is  used  principally  in  surgery;  it  can,  however, 
be  employed  with  advantage  in  mtemal  medicine.  But  its  value 
in  veterinary  medicine  must  not  be  overestimated.  The  alleged 
results  of  massage  in  practice  are  in  great  part  to  be  attributed 
to  the  healmg  power  of  nature  and  to  the  simultaneous  employ- 
ment of  hydrotherapy  and  medical  treatment.  For  horses  espe- 
cially, massage  will  never  attain  the  same  importance  as  for  man, 
where  suggestion  is  frequently  the  principal  healmg  factor;  in 
addition,  the  hair  of  the  horse,  the  resistance  of  many  animals 
and  the  bodily  diflSculties  arising  for  the  masseur  hinder  the 
application  of  the  method.  Furthermore,  much  time  is  often 
lost  with  massage;  blisters  and  firing  are  much  more  valuable 
therapeutic  measures  than  massage. 

The  most  important  indications  for  massage  are  the  following: 
'  1.  Blood  stasis,  lymph  stasis,  oedemas  of  the  skm,  mucous 
membranes,  and  subcutis  (especially  prophylactically  against 
formation  of  thrombi  and  m  decubitus). 

2.  Contusions,  hemorrhages  and  lymphorrhagia  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  (saddle  pressure,  haematomas  of  the  thigh). 

3.  Subacute,  aseptic  inflammations  of  the  skin,  subcutis,  ten- 


MASSAGE  279 

dons,  tendon  sheaths,  jomts,  bones,  glands  and  udder  (milking). 
Massage  should  not  be  applied  too  early  in  fresh  distortions  of  the 
joints  and  in  acute  periostitis  (only  after  several  days'  treatment). 

4.  Chronic  inflammatory  thickenings  and  indurations  in  the 
organs  mentioned  in  paragraph  3,  splints,  galls,  ulcers,  badly 
granulating  wounds,  stiffness  and  weakness  of  the  limbs  in  old 
horses  and  after  hard  work. 

5.  Muscular  rheumatism,  muscular  paralysis,  muscular  atrophy 
and  musctdar  cramp. 

6.  Paralysis  of  peripheral,  motor  and  sensory  nerves,  spinal 
and  cerebral  paraljrtic  conditions. 

7.  Chronic  inflammation  of  the  cornea  (leucoma);  oedema  of 
the  eyelids. 

8.  Colic,  constipation,  tympanites,  paresis  of  the  nmien,  atony 
of  the  gastric  and  intestuial  musculature. 

9.  Febrile  general  diseases,  inflammation  of  internal  organs, 
obesity,  diabetes,  anaemia  (Weu:  Mitchell's  method),  cardiac 
failure  (OerteFs  method). 

10.  In  healthy  animals,  massage  in  the  form  of  training  and 
rubbing  down  after  exercise  is  an  important  factor  in  maintaining 
health,  especially  in  horses. 

Contraindications. — Since  massage  promotes  the  resorption  of 
the  products  of  inflammation  (fibrin,  serum,  blood),  it  can  be 
employed  only  in  simple,  non-septic  inflammations.  In  all  cases 
in  which  septic  material  is  present  in  the  area  of  inflammation, 
especially  the  bacteria  of  septicaemia  and  pysemia,  massage  must 
be  omitted,  otherwise  a  general  infection  of  the  body  will  result 
from  the  resorption  of  the  infectious  material.  Massage  is  espe- 
cially contraindicated  in  phlegmona,  abscesses,  septic  mastitis, 
metastatic  tendovaginitis  (contagious  pneiunonia  of  horses),  ery- 
sipelatous swellings  (influenza),  malignant  oedema,  black  leg,  all 
purulent,  sanious  and  septic  inflammatory  conditions  in  general 
and  in  fresh  keratitis. 

Massage  is  to  be  avoided  particularly  in  phlebitis,  lymphan- 
gitis and  purulent  lymphadenitis,  because  here  the  danger  of  a 


280        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

blood  infection  is  the  greatest.  In  addition,  phlebotomy  fistulse 
and  venous  thrombi  should  not  be  massaged,  since  lung  emboli 
may  result  from  the  disintegration  of  the  thrombus.  Massage  of 
arterial  thrombi  cannot  be  unqualifiedly  recommended  because 
of  the  danger  of  peripheral  emboli.  Finally,  massage  is  forbidden 
in  animals  in  many  cases  by  the  local  sensitiveness. 

Technique  of  Massage. — To  massage  correctly  requires  on  the  one  hand 
good  instruction  and  practice  and  on  the  other  hand  a  certain  adaptability 
of  the  fingers  and  hand.  Definite  rules  concerning  the  variety  and  the  con- 
tinuance of  massage  can  not  be  laid  down.  Massaging  according  to  a  fixed 
system  should  be  especially  avoided;  each  case  is  to  be  scientifically  individ- 
ualized. The  principle  of  massage  is  that  the  stroking,  rubbing  and  kneading 
movements  should  be  centripetal  where  possible,  i.e.,  in  the  direction  from 
the  periphery  toward  the  heart.  On  the  legs,  for  example,  one  massages  from 
below  upward,  and  on  the  neck  from  above  downward,  following  the  course 
of  the  venous  blood  and  lymph.  The  movements  may  also  be  circular,  from 
above  downward  and  the  reverse  alternately;  the  chief  result  is  then  altera- 
tion of  the  circulation.  Usually,  massage  is  begun  and  ended  with  stroking. 
The  "introductory  massage"  is  begun  on  the  healthy,  centrally  situated  parts 
in  order  first  of  all  to  clear  the  paths  of  diversion.  Massage  is  usually  per- 
formed with  the  dry  hand  (finger  tips,  surface  of  the  hand,  thumbs,  fist); 
when  massage  is  long-continued  the  hand  is  moistened  or  is  anointed  with 
piu«  oil,  paraffin  ointment,  lard  or  with  a  medicated  ointment  (camphor 
ointment,  iodoform  ointment).  The  official  paraffin  ointment  *  (white  vaseline) 
is  the  best.  Massage  is  continued  on  the  average  for  10  to  20  minutes  and  is 
applied  once  or  twice  daily.  In  massaging  articulations,  flexing,  extending 
and  rotating  movements  are  employed.  Very  hard  indurations,  as  splints, 
etc.,  can  be  massaged  with  the  assistance  of  sticks  and  plates.  Aids  of  this 
kind  are  unnecessary  in  other  conditions;  this  is  also  true  of  the  use  of  objects 
placed  upon  the  skin  to  receive  the  pressure  or  blow.  Tapping  is  used  in 
paralytic  conditions  and  as  a  preliminary  massage  in  distortions.  The  sur- 
face of  the  fingers  and  the  hollow  of  the  hand  are  well  adapted  for  stroking, 
both  hands  being  used  alternately;  deep-lying  parts  are  massaged  with  the 
tips  of  the  thumbs.  Rubbing  is  performed  with  the  joints  of  the  fingers  and 
hand  held  rigidly,  the  hands  moving  in  straight  lines  or  in  a  circle  over  small  sur- 
faces. In  kneading,  the  soft  parts  are  grasped  transversely  with  the  hands  and 
pressed  with  the  fingers  progressively  toward  the  centre  of  the  body.  Tap- 
ping consists  of  elastic  taps  with  the  loose-jointed  hand  or  slapping  with  the 

I*  Petrolatum  album  of  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia.] 


MASSAGE  281 

hollow  of  the  hand;  the  fist  and  instruments  are  also  used.  Massage  of  the 
nimen  and  intestines  is  performed  by  pressing  both  fists  into  the  flank  region 
against  the  organ  concerned;  general  rubbing  of  the  abdominal  wall  operates 
indirectly.  In  colic  of  the  horse,  the  large  colon  can  be  massaged  from  the 
rectum.  Massage  of  the  cornea  is  performed  by  placing  some  ointment  (yellow 
mercuric  oxide  salve,  1  :  25)  between  the  lids,  drawing  them  over  the  eye  and 
gently  rubbing.  The  articulations,  tendons  and  muscles  are  most  frequently 
massaged.  For  more  details  of  the  technique  of  massage,  see  the  works  of  von 
Mosengeil,  Reibmayr,  Zabludowski,  Vogel  and  others.  Concerning  the 
action  and  uses  of  massage  in  veterinary  medicine  see  also  Kohlhepp  (Disser- 
tation, Giessen,  1906),  Goldbeck  (Zeitschr.  f.  Vet.,  1908)  and  Leufifen  (Mo- 
natehefte  fiir  prakt.  Tierheilkunde,  1912). 


ELECTRICITY  AS  A  REMEDY.    ELECTROTHERAPY 

Synonyms:    Galvanotherapy,  Faradotherapy,  Franklinotherapy. 

General. — Although  electricity  has  been  employed  for  healing 
purposes  for  a  long  time,  it  is  only  within  the  last  seventy  years 
that  its  action  upon  the  body  has  been  closely  examined  scientific- 
ally (Remak,  Ziemssen,  Erb).  Furthermore,  its  physiological 
action  remains  unexplained  to-day  in  many  respects.  Electro- 
therapy is  therefore  still  in  part  a  purely  empirical  healing  method. 
In  veterinary  medicine,  electricity  is  seldom  employed  for  curative 
purposes  and,  indeed,  is  used  mostly  only  on  dogs  and  horses. 
According  to  the  form  of  electricity  employed  and  the  object  of  the 
treatment,  the  following  forms  of  electrotherapy  are  differentiated: 

1.  Galvanotherapy  consists  in  the  employment  of  the  con- 
tinuous (galvanic)  current  generated  in  galvanic  batteries. 

2.  Faradotherapy  uses  the  interrupted  (faradic,  induced) 
current,  which  is  generated  by  means  of  an  induction  apparatus. 

3.  Franklinotherapy  is  seldom  employed;  static  or  friction 
electricity  is  used. 

4.  Electrolysis  (galvanolysis)  is  the  chemical  decomposition 
of  fluids  by  the  galvanic  current,  the  electrodes  being  placed  upon 
the  skin. 

5.  Electropuncture  (galvanopuncture)  serves  the  same 
purposes  as  the  needle-shaped  electrodes  which  are  used  to 
penetrate  the  tissues. 

6.  Galvanocaustic  is  the  use  of  the  galvanic  current  to  heat 
firing  apparatus. 

Action. — The  effects  of  electricity  upon  the  living  animal 
body  are  very  complicated  and  have  not  been  completely  investi- 
gated. The  nervous  system  and  the  musculature  are  influenced 
first  of  all  by  the  electric  current.  But  the  fluids  of  the  body, 
especially  the  blood,  and  the  glands  and  other  tissues  appear  also 
282 


ELECTROTHERAPY  283 

to  be  changed  in  certain  respects  by  electricity.    In  general  the 
following  effects  are  recognized: 

1.  The  stimulant  action  is  produced  most  strongly  by  the 
induced  (faradic)  current.  It  causes  burning  of  the  skin  (cutaneous 
irritation),  stimulation  of  the  sensory  and  motor  nerves,  muscular 
contraction,  dilation  of  the  blood-vessels  (stimulation  of  the  vaso- 
dilators), increase  of  gland  activity  and  of  metabolism.  Electricity 
therefore  operates  as  a  stimulant  to  most  of  the  organs  of  the  body. 

2.  The  electrotonic  action  consists  in  the  alteration  of  the 
physiological  electrotonus,  i.e.,  a  change  in  the  susceptibility  of 
the  nerves  (anelectrotonus,  catelectrotonus).  To  this  are  probably 
due  in  great  part  the  curative  results  of  electrotherapy  in  nerve 
diseases.  The  electrotonic  action  of  the  continuous  current  espe- 
cially is  sedative,  reducing  the  receptivity  of  the  nerves. 

3.  A  chemical  action  is  undoubtedly  produced  by  the  electric 
current,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  poles  (anode,  cathode).  It 
acts  first  of  all  upon  the  fluids  (serum,  blood)  and  upon  the  salts 
contained  in  them.  As  is  well  known,  salts  and  other  compounds 
(water)  are  separated  by  electrolysis  into  their  positive  and  nega- 
tive elements  and  the  positive  (alkaline)  elements  are  attracted 
by  the  negative  pole  or  cathode  while  the  negative  elements  (acid) 
are  attracted  by  the  positive  pole  or  anode.  The  electric  current 
in  muscles  and  nerves  is  probably  due  to  a  similar  combination 
of  chemical  opposites. 

4.  A  cataphoric  action  is  manifested  by  substances  which  ordi- 
narily are  not  diffused  through  the  tissues  of  the  body  becoming 
diffusible  under  the  influence  of  the  electric  current.  Because  of 
the  results  obtained  in  experiments  with  potassium  iodide  and 
cocaine,  it  is  assumed  that  pathological  products  also  become 
diffusible. 

The  so-called  catalytic  (alterative)  action  appears  to  consist 
essentially  of  a  stimulation  of  the  vasomotor  and  trophic  nerves 
and  consequently  falls  under  the  first-named  action. 

Uses. — In  veterinary  medicine,  electrotherapy  is  indicated  in 


284        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

the  following  diseased  conditions  in  the  smaller  domestic  animals 
and  in  horses: 

1.  As  a  stimulant  in  pareses  and  paralyses  of  the  posterior 
quarters  and  in  paralyses  of  the  peripheral  nerves  and  muscles  (pa- 
ralysis of  the  facial  and  radial  nerves,  tongue,  bladder,  quadriceps 
and  penis,  and  amblyopia).  In  these  conditions,  the  interrupted 
(faradic,  induced)  current  is  used  in  medium  strength,  because 
every  single  one  of  the  numerous  interruptions  stimulates  the 
nervous  system. 

2.  As  a  sedative  in  excitable  conditions  of  the  muscles  (twitch- 
ings  after  canine  distemper).  The  galvanic  or  continuous  current 
is  used  as  mildly  as  possible. 

3.  As  a  diagnostic  and  prognostic  to  demonstrate  the  retention 
or  loss  of  sensory  and  motor  excitability  in  paral5rtic  conditions  of 
the- nervous  system  and  musculature  (testing  electric  excitability). 

The  surgical  employment  of  the  galvanocaustic  and  electro- 
puncture  for  the  destruction  of  new  formations  has  not  been  made 
use  of  in  veterinary  medicine. 

Technique. — The  best  induction  apparatus  for  veterinary  purposes  is  the 
small,  handy  apparatus  of  Spamer  (price,  $7  to  $10).  If  the  electric  treat- 
ment is  Umited  to  paralytic  conditions,  this  apparatus  will  be  entirely  sufficient. 
For  other  cases,  a  small  galvanic  apparatus  can  be  used.  The  method  of  using 
these  apparatuses  is  described  in  the  directions  which  accompany  them.  In 
general,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  hairy  skin  of  animals  is  a  poor  con- 
ductor of  electricity  and  that  the  electrodes  must  therefore  be  moistened  (salt 
water  is  best)  before  they  are  apphed.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  the 
electric  excitabihty  is  increased  in  the  region  of  the  negative  electrode  (cath- 
ode), while  it  is  decreased  in  the  region  of  the  anode.  Of  especial  practical 
importance  are  the  facts  already  mentioned,  namely:  that  the  nerves  are 
soothed  by  a  weak  galvanic  current,  while  they  are  stimulated  by  a  strong 
faradic  current.  In  the  emplojrment  of  the  faradic  current,  a  weak  current  is 
used  in  the  beginning  and  the  strength  is  slowly  increased  until  a  reaction 
(twitching,  pain)  is  obtained;  the  current  is  permitted  to  operate  in  the  latter 
strength  on  the  paralyzed  part  for  10  to  15  minutes,  one  to  three  times  a  day. 
If  a  weaker  current  later  produces  twitching  it  is  an  indication  of  improvement. 
The  strength  of  current  used  can  be  exactly  regulated  with  the  apparatus. 
The  application  of  the  electrodes  differs;  usually  one  electrode  is  placed  as 


ELECTROTHERAPY  285 

close  as  possible  to  the  paralyzed  nerve  or  muscle,  while  the  other  one  is  applied 
in  the  neighborhood.  In  spinal  paresis  of  the  posterior  quarters  an  electrode 
is  placed  on  the  moistened  sole  of  each  hind  foot  so  that  the  current  will  pass 
through  the  entire  posterior  parts;  in  paralysis  of  a  single  limb,  one  electrode 
is  apphed  to  the  sole  of  the  foot  and  the  other  in  the  region  of  the  lumbar  cord. 
The  spinal  cord  is  either  treated  longitudinally,  with  the  anode  placed  upon  the 
upper  (anterior)  and  the  cathode  upon  the  lower  (posterior)  part;  or  trans- 
versely, with  the  electrodes  upon  the  sternum  (anode)  and  spinal  column 
(cathode);  the  galvanic  current,  with  the  largest  electrodes  possible,  operates 
best.  The  brain  is  treated  with  the  electrodes  applied  to  the  back  of  the  neck 
and  to  the  forehead,  the  weakest  galvanic  ciurent  possible  being  used. 

A  more  complete  discussion  of  electrotherapy  will  be  found  in  Grundriss 
der  Elektrotherapie  f iir  Tierarzte  by  Tereg  (Berlin,  1902),  and  in  the  special 
works  of  Erb,  Pierson-Sperling,  Rosenthal,  Benedikt,  Levandowski,  Meyer, 
Graupner  and  others. 

Thermopenetration. — This  term  refers  to  the  generation  of  heat  in  the 
inner  parts  of  the  body  with  the  assistance  of  the  electric  current.  The  im- 
limited  high-frequency  current  can  be  introduced  into  the  body  in  any  strength 
desired  without  producing  any  effect  upon  the  nervous  system.  It  exerts  a 
favorable  influence  on  man,  especially  in  neuralgias  and  rheumatic  affections. 
An  electric  warm-current  healing  apparatus  called  the  "Stangerotherm"  has 
been  reconmiended  for  animals. 


BLEEDING 

Synonyms:    Venesection,  phlebotomy. 

General. — Bleeding,  a  healing  method  of  the  old  therapeutics, 
has  in  the  last  several  decades  very  correctly  passed  out  of  fashion. 
A  critical  examination  of  its  indications  has  shown  that  in  most 
cases  in  which  it  is  employed  early  it  is  at  least  unnecessary,  while 
in  a  large  number  of  cases  it  is  even  directly  harmful.  This  is 
especially  true  of  its  former  conventional  employment  in  all 
febrile  and  inflammatory  diseases.  Still,  it  cannot  be  entirely 
dispensed  with  even  to-day,  especially  in  veterinary  medicine. 
There  are  some  very  well-defined  diseases,  especially  of  horses  and 
cattle,  in  which  bleeding  under  certain  circumstances  saves  life. 

Action. — ^The  most  important  effect  upon  the  body  of  the 
decrease  in  the  total  quantity  of  blood  (5  to- 10  liters  in  horses  and 
cattle)  which  results  from  bleeding  is  the  withdrawal  of  a  large 
amount  of  water.  In  this  respect,  the  effect  of  bleeding  agrees 
entirely  with  the  action  of  diaphoretic,  sialagogue,  diuretic,  and 
laxative  drugs,  especially  arecoline.  Following  this  withdrawal  of 
water,  the  blood  seeks  to  regain  at  least  its  former  volume  as 
quickly  as  possible  by  taking  up  any  fluids  in  the  body  at  its 
disposal  (lymph,  fluid  exudates),  creating  a  temporary  hydrsemia. 
Upon  this  process  rests  one  of  the  most  important  effects  of  bleed- 
ing. Another  important  effect  is  the  derivation  of  the  blood  from 
the  internal  organs;  the  quicker  the  blood  is  withdrawn  in  bleeding 
the  more  rapidly  and  promptly  this  action  occurs.  The  other 
effects  of  bleeding  upon  the  body  are  of  no  special  practical  im- 
portance. It  may  be  mentioned  that  bleeding  also  corrects  dis- 
turbances of  the  circulation,  removes  poisons  from  the  body  with 
the  blood  and  increases  proteid  metabolism,  while  the  fat  and 
carbohydrate  metabolism  is  depressed  (increased  excretion  of 
urea,  decreased  elimination  of  carbon  dioxide  and  decreased 
absorption  of  oxygen,  according  to  Bauer). 
286 


BLEEDING  287 

Uses. — Bleeding  is  still  indicated  to-day  in  the  following 
conditions: 

1.  Laminitis  of  horses.  Experience  has  taught  that  a  free 
bleeding  as  early  as  possible  in  this  condition,  in  connection  with 
arecoline,  is  the  best  treatment  for  laminitis  (founder). 

2.  In  the  first  stages  of  inflammation  of  the  brain,  so  long  as 
symptoms  of  cerebral  congestion  are  present  (pronounced  injec- 
tion of  the  visible  mucous  membranes  of  the  head,  increased 
temperature  of  the  cranium,  strong  pulsation  of  the  arteries  of 
the  head,  symptoms  of  psychic  excitement). 

3.  In  congestion  of  the  limgs  with  threatened  oedema  of  the 
Itmgs. 

4.  In  poisoning  of  the  blood  (carbon  monoxide,  illuminating 
gas,  haemoglobin,  ursemia). 

Bleeduig  is  also  recommended  in  rheimiatic  haemoglobinaemia 
[azotuiia]  of  horses,  as  a  prophylactic  against  parturient  apoplexy 
and  in  different  internal  circulatory  disturbances  (heart  diseases). 
In  some  sections  it  is  used  empirically  in  the  beginning  of  fattening. 
On  the  other  hand,  its  employment  has  been  proven  to  be  not 
without  objection  in  inflammation  of  the  brain  and  lungs,  in 
pulmonary  hemorrhage  and  in  chlorosis  (it  is  alleged  to  promote 
the  formation  of  blood  in  chlorosis  of  man).  Bleeding  exerts  no 
prophylactic  effect  against  mfectious  diseases,  as  has  been  estab- 
lished experimentally  by  Zschokke. 

Transfusion. — This  method  is  unnecessary  in  veterinary  medi- 
cine and  its  use  in  human  medicine  is  strongly  contested.  It  con- 
sists in  introducing  into  the  veins  of  a  diseased  individual  defibri- 
nated  blood  from  an  individual  of  the  same  species.  Transfusion 
is  reconmiended  in  excessive  loss  of  blood  and  in  poisoning  of 
the  blood  (carbon  monoxide).  It  has,  however,  been  recently  sup- 
planted by  infusion  and  injections  of  sodium  chloride  in  solution. 

Infusion. — By  this  is  understood  the  introduction  of  solutions 
of  medicines  directly  into  the  circulation  through  a  vein.  In 
hmnan  medicine,  infusion  of  sodium  chloride  solution  especially 
is  recommended  in  place  of  transfusion  in  poisonings,  cholera,  etc. 


GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  LOCO- 
MOTION   (MUSCLES,    TENDONS,    NERVES, 
ARTICULATIONS,  BONES) 

Therapeutic  Methods. — The  diseases  of  the  organs  of  locomo- 
tion comprise  the  principal  part  of  surgery.  They  include  the 
consideration  of  inflammation,  atrophy,  paralysis  and  laceration 
of  the  muscles,  paralysis  of  the  nerves,  inflammation  and  lacera- 
tion of  tendons,  inflammation  and  fracture  of  the  bones,  and 
inflammation  and  dislocation  of  the  articulations.  The  thera- 
peutic methods  employed  in  the  treatment  of  these  diseases  are 
naturally  very  numerous  and  differ  with  the  character  of  the 
individual  case.  With  regard  to  them  and  the  excellent  natural 
healing  processes  which  operate  in  these  conditions,  especially  in 
bone  fractures,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  text-books  on  general 
surgery.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some  observations  to  be  made 
from  the  standpoint  of  general  therapeutics.  The  surgical  methods 
of  treatment  most  frequently  used  are  the  following: 

1.  The  rest  treatment  is  the  most  important  method  of  healing 
in  all  painful  and  acute  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  muscles, 
tendons,  bones,  and  articulations.  "Rest  the  afflicted  part." 
Simply  permitting  horses  to  "  stand  "  will  alone  in  many  cases 
bring  about  healing  (natural  healing).  The  application  of  a 
plaster-of-Paris  dressing  in  fracture  of  bones  and  sprained  joints 
acts  in  the  same  manner. 

2.  The  exercise  treatment,  on  the  contrary,  is  indicated  in 
some  chronic  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  muscles,  nerves, 
tendons  and  articulations  (muscular  rheumatism,  atrophy  of 
muscles,  paralyses  of  muscles  and  nerves,  and  contractions).  By 
exercise,  as  by  massage,  the  circulation,  resorption,  innervation 
and  metabolism  are  stimulated  locally  and  generally,  muscular 
activity  and  the  body  constitution  are  strengthened,  and  under 

288 


ORGANS  OF  LOCOMOTION  289 

certain  circumstances  pain  is  decreased.  In  addition,  exercise 
operates  as  a  prophylactic  against  haemoglobinsemia  [azoturia], 
parturient  apoplexy  and  stable  founder. 

3.  Hydrotherapy  (cold,  heat,  Priessnitz  dressing),  cutaneous 
irritants,  firing,  massage,  and  electrotherapy  are  very  important 
methods  of  treatment  in  numerous  acute  and  chronic  surgical 
disease  conditions.    (See  the  chapters  on  those  methods.) 

4.  The  medical  method  consists  in  the  use  of  direct  stimulants 
of  the  muscles  and  nerves:  veratrin  and  strychnine;  also  in  the 
subcutaneous  and  parenchymatous  injection  of  morphine,  cocaine, 
sodium  chloride,  and  oil  of  turpentine  (shoulder  lameness). 

5.  The  operative  treatment  is  either  direct  or  indirect.  Exam- 
ples of  the  direct  method  are:  section  of  contracted  tendons  or 
muscles  (tenotomy,  myotomy),  incision  of  purulent  inflammations 
of  muscles,  bones  and  tendon  sheaths,  and  resection  of  necrotic 
tendons,  while  neurotomy  is  an  example  of  the  indirect  or  symp- 
tomatic method. 

6.  Regulation  of  the  shoeing  is  very  important  in  numerous 
surgical  diseases  (diseases  of  the  hoof,  ring  bone,  spavin,  diseases 
of  tendons). 


19 


INDIFFERENT  REMEDIES.    MECHANICALS 

Definition. — The  terms  indifferent  and  mechanical  are  used  to 
designate  a  group  of  therapeutic  agents  which  in  general  do  not 
produce  any  chemical  or  pharmacological  effect  upon  the  organ- 
ism and  which  are  employed  only  for  their  mechanical  action. 
The  group  includes  protective,  emollient,  cleansing,  absorbent, 
dilating,  and  uniting  remedies. 

L  PROTECTIVES 

Synonjnns:  Obtegents,  in  vol  vents,  obvolents,  lubricants;  covering,  pro- 
tecting, soothing  remedies,  bandages  or  dressings. 

Uses. — The  protectives  serve  to  cover  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes  in  inflammatory  conditions  and  when  wounds  are 
present;  also  to  guard  and  defend  these  structures  against  injurious 
influences.  Wounds  upon  the  skin  are  most  frequently  treated 
by  the  use  of  bandagiug  materials.  In  addition,  the  different 
varieties  of  eczema,  erosions  and  bums  and  also  the  specific  inflam- 
mations of  the  skin  require  the  employment  of  protective  remedies 
in  the  form  of  salves.  The  latter  are  also  applied  to  the  skin 
prophylactically  to  protect  it  from  flowing  secretions  (pus)  and 
caustic  substances  (cantharides).  The  protectives  are  admin- 
istered internally  in  the  different  inflammatory  conditions  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  oesophagus,  stomach  and  intes- 
tines and  as  mechanical  antidotes  lq  intoxications  (see  p.  216) ;  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  bladder  and  rectum  is  also  accessible  to 
applications  of  protectives.  Finally,  they  are  used  to  prevent  the 
dissipation  of  heat  and  moisture  from  the  skin,  to  promote  cu- 
taneous resorption  in  the  epidermatic  application  of  medicines 
and  to  lubricate  the  instruments  and  hands. 

Remedies. — 1.  Fats  and  oils:  Lard,  olive  oil,  linseed  oil,  pea- 
nut oil,  almond  oil,  rape  oil,  poppy-seed  oil,  cod  liver  oil,  cacao  oil, 
290 


INDIFFERENT  REMEDIES.    MECHANICALS  291 

coca  oil,  mutton  suet,  spermaceti,  ointment  of  rose  water,  and 
sevum  salicylatum.^ 

2.  Mucilaginous  remedies:  Linseed,  acacia,  althaea,  traga- 
canth,  salep,  mallow,  dietetic  remedies  (oat  and  barley  mucilage). 

3.  Paraffin  ointment,^  lanolin,  simple  cerate. 

4.  Plasters  and  liniments:  Adhesive  plaster,  Lund's  plaster,' 
Carron  oil  (linamentum  calcis). 

5.  Silver  nitrate  (silver  covering  of  bums  and  other  cutaneous 
affections). 

6.  Gelatin,  collodion,  traumaticin  [gutta-percha  dissolved  in 
chloroform],  water  glass. 

7.  Starch,  lycopodium,  zinc  oxide,  bolus,  talcum,  pulvis  talci 
Bahcyhcus  (N.F.). 

8.  Cotton  and  other  dressing  material, 

2.  EMOLLIENTS 

Synonjrms:  Demulcents,  solvents;  softening,  loosening,  liquefying,  dis- 
integrating remedies. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  emollients  operate  upon  the  different 
pathological  indurations  of  the  skin,  subcutis,  tendons,  tendon 
sheaths,  and  muscles  by  mechanical  diffusion  and  imbibition 
(water,  oil,  glycerin,  soap),  by  preventing  the  dissipation  of  heat 
and  water  (poultices)  and  by  chemical  solution  (lyes,  alkalies), 
disintegration  and  liquefaction.  The  remedies  concerned  in  in- 
ternal softening  and  solution  have  already  been  considered  in  the 
chapters  on  resorbents  (p.  76),  expectorants  (p.  107)  and  diuretics 
(p.  113.)  The  external  disease  conditions  which  are  most  frequently 
treated  with  emollients  are  thickenings  of  the  skin,  calluses,  scabs 
and  crusts  upon  the  skin,  squamous  eczema,  thickenings  of  the 
subcutis,  hard  swellings  in  the  tendons  and  tendon  sheaths  as  in 

P  Salicylic  acid  2  parts,  benzoic  acid  1,  mutton  suet  97.] 
p  Petrolatum  album.] 

P  Turpentine  and  pitch,  equal  parts;  liquefy  by  heat,  mix,  and  spread  on 
cloth.] 


292        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

tendinitis  and  tendovaginitis,  indurations  of  glands,  udder  nodules 
and  rheumatic  indurations  of  muscles. 

Remedies. — 1.  Water  and  all  remedies  containing  water  (baths, 
cataplasms,  moist  applications). 

2.  Moist  heat,  especially  in  the  form  of  the  Priessnitz  dressing 
and  cataplasms. 

3.  Fats,  soaps,  glycerin,  and  lyes  (soda  lye,  potash  lye,  potas- 
sium sulphate). 

3.  CLEANSING  REMEDIES 

Action  and  Uses. — The  ordinary  cleansing  agents,  water  and 
soap,  operate  mechanically  to  remove  dirt,  scabs,  pus,  and  other 
disease  products,  and  particularly  infectious  materials.  In  the 
latter  respect,  the  cleansing  agents  act  at  the  same  time  as  dis- 
infectants. As  already  stated  (p.  182),  a  thorough  cleansing  is  in 
many  cases  equal  in  value  to  a  disinfection.  Water  and  soap, 
when  rationally  used,  frequently  suffice  as  disinfectants;  provided 
the  water  is  clean,  i.e.,  free  from  infectious  materials,  that  it  is 
used  in  sufficient  amount  and,  when  possible,  warm  or  hot,  and 
that  a  good  preparation  of  soap  is  used.  An  entirely  neutral  soap 
is  best  for  cleansing  the  skin  (soft  soap  irritates  the  skin,  as  may 
be  frequently  observed  especially  in  dogs).  On  the  other  hand, 
for  cleansing  utensils  and  other  articles  a  soap  with  a  strong 
alkaline  reaction  is  desired,  i.e.,  a  soap  which  contains  free  lye, 
because  the  free  lye  exerts  a  disinfectant  as  well  as  a  cleansing 
effect.    Soft  soap  is  therefore  preferred  for  this  purpose. 

Absorbent  Remedies  (Imbibents,  Rophetics).— These  serve 
to  absorb  blood,  serum,  pus,  and  other  fluids.  Their  action  is 
purely  physical.  They  include  dressing  materials  (cotton,  wood 
wool,  jute,  etc.).  Wood  wool  possesses  the  greatest  imbibing 
properties.  Freshly-burned  charcoal  absorbs  gases  (SH2)  and 
poisons,  and  starch  absorbs  iodine. 

Dilating  Remedies  (Dilatants). — ^A  mechanical  dilation  by 
means  of  dilating  pencils  (laminaria,  tupelo)  is  used  in  surgery 
and  obstetrics. 


INDIFFERENT  REMEDIES.     MECHANICAI^  293 

Uniting  Remedies  (Contentives). — ^These  serve  to  unite  solu- 
tions of  continuity  (wounds,  fractures  of  bones).  The  so-called 
immovable  dressings  are  made  of  rubber,  gelatin,  water  glass, 
plaster-of-Paris,  starch  paste,  etc.  Medical  uniting  substances 
for  wounds  are  collodion,  traumaticm  [gutta-percha  dissolved  in 
chloroform],  and  adhesive  plaster* 


Am  AS  A  REMEDY 

General. — ^While  the  air  acts  as  the  excitant  or  carrier  in  differ- 
ent diseases,  it  is  also  an  important  healing  factor  in  a  number  of 
diseases.  As  regards  the  harmful  effects  of  the  air,  these  can  be 
referred  in  part  to  its  temperature  and  in  part  to  the  admixture 
of  dust,  bacteria,  and  poisons.  Stable  air  is  an  especially  frequent 
source  of  diseases  of  all  kinds.  Its  constant,  uniform  temperature, 
which  is  usually  too  high,  exerts  a  relaxing  effect  upon  the  general 
body  constitution  and  produces  a  consequent  predisposition  to  dis- 
ease. The  best  known  of  the  stable  diseases  which  occur  through 
the  influence  of  the  temperature  of  the  stable  air  are  rheumatism, 
rheumatic  hsemoglobinsemia  [azoturia],  catarrhs,  brain  and  lung 
diseases,  and  also  summer  wounds  in  army  horses.  Secondly, 
stable  air  operates  pathologically  through  its  contained  bacteria, 
gases  and  mechanical  admixtures.  These  favor  especially  the 
development  of  tuberculosis,  glanders,  contagious  pneumonia  of 
horses  and  other  infectious  diseases.  The  carbon  dioxide,  ammonia 
and  other  gases  which  may  be  present  act  harmfully  upon  the 
respiration.  The  outside  air  can  also  cause  disease  in  different 
ways  (hot  air,  dusty  air,  arsenical  fumes,  lead  vapors).  By  a 
careful  prophylaxis  all  of  these  disease  conditions  may  be  indirectly 
avoided. 

Furthermore,  air  is  a  very  important  direct  curative  agent. 
Its  healing  action  is  in  part  due  to  the  oxygen  it  contains  (open 
suppuration,  anaerobes),  in  part  to  its  temperature  and  in  part  to 
its  purity.  To  what  extent  the  ozone  of  the  air  possesses  healing 
properties  has  not  been  scientifically  determined. 

Therapeutic  Action  of  Cold  Air. — Cold  air  operates  first,  like 
cold  water,  as  a  cutaneous  irritant.  The  anaemia  produced  primar- 
ily in  the  cutaneous  vessels  is  followed  by  a  reactive  hyperaemia 
of  the  skin.  As  a  consequence  the  circulation  is  stimulated  through- 
294 


AIR  AS  A  REMEDY  295 

out  the  entire  body  and  the  blood  is  driven  from  the  internal 
organs,  especially  the  lungs,  digestive  apparatus  and  brain,  to  the 
periphery,  metabolism  is  increased  and  the  constitution  is  strength- 
ened. Heat  is  given  off  by  the  body  to  the  surrounding  cold  air, 
provided  the  action  of  the  latter  continues  long  enough.  Cold 
air  consequently  acts  as  a  refrigerant.  Upon  the  basis  of  these 
actions,  cold  air  is  employed  in  the  form  of  ventilation  of  stables, 
and  animals  are  exercised  in  cold  air,  bivouacked  and  placed  in 
cold  compartments  and  in  shady  places  to  make  them  hardy; 
cold  air  is  also  employed  as  a  preventive  against  rheumatism  and 
other  diseases  due  to  chilling,  as  a  curative  agent  in  all  febrile 
diseases  of  the  internal  organs,  and  in  congestion  of  the  lungs 
and  brain. 

Therapeutic  Action  of  Pure  Air. — Pure  air,  rich  in  oxygen, 
poor  in  carbon  dioxide,  free  from  bacteria  and  other  impurities, 
is  the  best  natural  remedy  in  all  catarrhal  affections  of  the  respira- 
tory apparatus.  It  is  employed  in  the  form  of  good  ventilation, 
the  air  in  the  stable  being  renewed  as  often  as  possible,  or  the 
animal  is  placed  in  the  open  air  (pasture,  bivouac,  exercise  in  the 
open).  The  renewal  of  the  air  in  the  bronchi  and  alveoli  promotes 
respiration  and  removes  the  injurious  air  from  these  structures. 
Furthermore,  the  introduction  of  fresh  air  dilutes  and  removes  the 
infectious  material  present,  which  is  also  in  part  destroyed  by  the 
oxygen  (disinfectant  action  of  fresh  air).  Especially  good  results 
have  been  obtained  in  this  respect  in  strangles,  contagious  pneu- 
monia, tuberculosis,  and  other  infectious  diseases. 

Climate. — Climate  can  only  be  made  use  of  for  healing  purposes  in  veter- 
inary medicine  in  exceptional  cases,  which  is  in  contrast  to  the  very  highly- 
developed  climate-therapy  of  human  medicine.  The  importance  of  climate  in 
a  hygienic  sense  for  the  domestic  animals  has,  it  is  true,  been  known  for  a 
long  time.  It  is  known,  for  example,  that  the  mountain  breeds,  because  of 
the  vigorous  climate,  are  more  resistant  to  diseases  of  all  kinds  than  the  breeds 
of  the  lowlands.  It  is  further  known  that  imported  animals  (monkeys, 
parrots)  are  very  susceptible  to  disease  and  frequently  die  of  tuberculosis 
because  of  the  change  of  climate.  A  similar  effect  is  observed  on  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep  when  they  are  taken  into  a  new  region  with  a  different  climate. 


296        GENERAL  THERAPEUTICS  FOR  VETERINARIANS 

For  economical  reasons,  a  change  of  climate  for  therapeutic  purposes  is  per- 
missible with  the  domestic  animals  only  in  very  rare  cases  (removal  to  ele- 
vated pastures  or  to  distant  farms),  although  frequently  such  a  change  ap- 
pears to  be  indicated,  especially  in  convalescence. 

Light. — The  use  of  Hght  as  a  heahng  remedy  was  introduced  by  Finsen 
of  Copenhagen.  He  uses  the  bactericidal  (chemical  action  of  the  ultraviolet, 
violet  and  blue  rays)  as  well  as  the  inflammation-producing  (thermal  action 
of  the  red  rays)  forces  of  light  and  has  in  this  manner  cured  numerous  cases 
of  lupus  in  man.  His  method  consists  in  concentrating  the  rays  of  a  very 
strong  arc  hght  by  means  of  a  rock  crystal  and  directing  them  through  a 
layer  of  distilled  water  which  is  continually  cooled.  Iwanow  (Repert.  d.  pol. 
Sanit.  v6t.,  1902)  has  obtained  excellent  results  with  Finsen's  apparatus  in  the 
treatment  of  eczemas  of  the  horse. 

Rontgen's  Rays. — These  are  used  in  surgery  for  the  local  treatment  of 
malignant  neoplasms  (carcinomas,  sarcomas).  Radium  acts  in  a  similar 
manner  (radiotherapy).  In  internal  medicine,  the  Rontgen  rays  have  proven 
less  satisfactory  (employed  in  chronic  myelomas  and  in  lymphatic  leukaemia 
and  aleuksemic  splenic  tumors). 


INDEX 


Abortive  method,  8 

Abortives,  119 

Absorbent  materials,  292 

Absorbents  of  gas,  32,  52  ^ 

Acid-neutralizing  stomachics,  32 

Aeries,  146 

Air  as  a  remedy,  104,  294. 

harmful  effects  of,  294 
Alactics,  127 
Alterants,  76,  159 
Amara,  30 
Amblotics,  119 

Anaesthesia,  general  and  local,  101, 102 
Anaesthetics,  97 
Analeptics,  93 
Analgesics,  97 
Anaphrodisiacs,  121 
Anexosmotics,  48 
Angio-asthenics,  72 
Angiosthenics,  71 
Anodynes,  97 
Antacids,  32 
Antagonistics,  216 
Antagonists,  216 
Antaphrodisiacs,  121 
Antatrophics,  134 
Antemetics,  32 
Antentozoa,  165 
Antepizoa,  160 
Anterotics,  121 
Anthelmintics,  165 
Anti-asthmatics,  97 
Anticatarrhahcs,  159 
Anticathartics,  48 
Anticonvulsives,  97 
Antidepertitorics,  134 
Antidiarrhoeics,  48 
Antidotes,  216 

chemical,  217 

mechanical,  216 

physiological,  219 

symptomatic,  220 
Antidyscratics,  159 
Antidysenterics,  48 
Antidyspeptics,  29 
Antiepileptics,  97 
Antifebrilics,  84 
Antifermentatives,  169 
Antiferments,  52 
Antigalactagogues,  127 
Antigalactics,  127 


Antihidrotics,  132 
Antineural^cs,  97 
Antiparalytics,  93 
Antiparasitics,  109,  160 
Antipediculous,  160 
Antiperiodics,  84 
Antiphlogistics,  159 
Antiphthiriacs,  160 
Antiplastics,  76,  138 
Antipsorics,  160 
Antiputrids,  169 
Antipyretics,  84,  86 
Antiscabious,  160 
Antisepsis,  170 
Antiseptic  stomachics,  31 

styptics,  49 
Antiseptics,  109,  169,  172 

for  wounds,  209 

internal,  213 
Antisialagogues,  132 
Antispasmodics,  52,  97 
Antitsenics,  165 
Antitetanics,  97 
Antithermics,  84 
Antitoxics,  216 
Antitypics,  84 
Antityposics,  84 
Antizymotics,  169 
Antodontalgics,  97 
Aperients,  40 
Aperitives,  40 
Aphrodisiacs,  120 
Arabian  medicine,  14 
Aristotle,  12 
Aromatic  stomachics,  31 
Artificial  arrest  of  hemorrhage,  68 
Asclepiadae,  9 
Asepsis,  170 
Aseptics,  169 
Astringent  styptics,  49 
Astringents,  48,  157 
Attenuation,  methods  of,  230 

Balneotherapy,  265 
Bechics,  109 
Bitter  stomachics,  30 
Bleeding,  286 
BUsters,  146 

Blood  diseases,  dietetic  treatment  of, 
63 
general  therapeutics  of,  60 
297 


298 


INDEX 


Blood-forming  remedies,  63 
Blood  plastics,  63,  134 
Blood-vessels,  general  therapeutics  of 

the  diseases  of,  64 
Boerhaave,  10,  17 
Bone  plastics,  134 
Bradysphygmics,  57 
Brown,  18 

Calefacients,  159 

Cardiac  diseases,  general  therapeutics 
of,  56 

sedatives,  68 

stimulants,  58 

tonics,  58 
Cardiacs,  57 
Carminatives,  52 
Cathseretics,  152 
Catharsis,  results  of,  43 

theories  of,  41 
Cathartics,  40,  45 
Causal  healing  method,  6 
Causes  of  immunity,  227 
Caustics,  152 
Cauteries,  152 
Cauterization,  156 
Cellular  pathology,  21 
Cerebralics,  91 
Chemical  antidotes,  217 
Chemotherapy,  23 
Cholagogue  laxatives,  54 
Cholagogues,  54 
Cleansing  remedies,  292 
CUmate,  295 
Coagulants,  157 
Cold,  69 

Colyseptics,  169,  172 
Composting,  202 
Compression,  68,  276 
Confortants,  137 
Confortatives,  137 
Conservants,  169 

Conservation  of  animal  products,  214 
Conservative  healing  method,  8 
Constipating  remedies,  48 
Contentives,  293 
Corrosives,  152 
Curative  vaccination,  252 
Cutaneous  irritants,  146 

mallein  test,  263 

tuberculin  test,  260 

Demulcent  styptics,  48 
Demulcents,  291 
Derivants,  146 

Derivative  healing  method,  5 
medicines,  146 


Dermerethistics,  146 
Diagnostic  inoculation,  254 
Diaphoretics,  129 
Diapnoics,  129 
Dietetic  method,  7 

treatpaent  of  blood  diseases,  63 
intestinal  diseases,  40 
liver  diseases,  55 
stomach  diseases,  29 
Digestive  organs,  general  therapeutics 

of,  25 
Digestives,  29 
Dilatants,  292 
Dilating  remedies,  292 
Direct  healing  method,  5 
Discutients,  76 
Disinfectant  stomachics,  31 
Disinfectants,  169 

for  infectious  diseases,  201 

for  wounds,  209 

mechanical,  208 

relative  rank  of,  173 
Disinfection    for    infectious    animal 
diseases,  183 

of  wounds,  178,  209 

preliminary,  182 

preparation  for,  182 
Diuretics,  113 
Drastics,  40 

Ebriantics,  97 
EcboUcs,  119 
Eccoprotics,  40 
Ectrotics,  119 
Electropuncture,  282 
Electricity  as  a  remedy,  282 
Electrolysis,  282 
Emesis,  effects  of,  35 
Emetics,  34,  216 
Emmenagogues,  119 
Emollients,  291 
Empirical  healing  method,  7 
Enterostyptics,  48 
Epileptifacients,  93 
Epispastics,  146 
Erasistratus,  12 
Erethistics,  146 
Erotics,  120 
Errhines,  107 
Erythrotics,  63 
Escharotics,  152 
Euphorics,  93 
Euplastics,  63,  134 
Evacuants,  40 
Excitants,  93 
Exhilarants,  93 
Expectant  healing  method,  7 


INDEX 


299 


Expectorants,  107 
Exsiccants,  157 
External  antiparasitics,  160 
Exudates,  general  therapeutics  of,  73 
Eye  diseases,  general  therapeutics  of, 
141 

Fallopius,  16 

Faradotherapy,  282 

Febrifuges,  84 

Fever,  general  therapeutics  of,  80 

Firing,  156 

Foods,  134 

Franklinotherapy,  282 

Galactagogues,  122 

Galactics,  122 

Galen,  12 

Galvanocaustic,  282 

Galvanotherapy,  282 

Gas  absorbents,  52 

Gas-expelling  drugs,  52 

General  healing  method,  5 

Genital  organs,  general  therapeutics 

of  the  diseases  of,  118 
Glands,  general  therapeutics  of,  128 

Haematics,  63 
Haematinics,  63 
Haematopoietics,  63 
Haemostatics,  69 
Hahnemann,  19 
Harvey,  16 
Healing  methods,  4 
Heart  diseases,  general  therapeutics 
of,  56 

remedies,  57 

sedatives,  58 

stimulants,  57 

tonics,  58 
Heat,  69 

Hemorrhage,  methods  of  arresting,  63 
Hepatic  stimulants,  54 
Hepatics,  54 
Herophilus,  12 
Hidrotics,  129 
Hippocrates,  10 
History  of  therapeutics,  9 
Hoffmann,  17 
Homoeopathy,  19 
Hufeland,  18 

Humoral  pathology,  11,  13 
Hydragogue  cathartics,  43 

diuretics,  113 
Hydriatrics,  265 
Hydrotherapy,  105,  265 
Hypersemia  as  a  remedy,  271 


HjqDerinoticg,  63 
Hyperkinetics,  93 
Hypnotics,  97 

Imbibents,  292 
Immunity,  225 

acquired,  226 

active,  226 

artificial,  227 

causes  of,  227 

individual,  225 

inherited,  226 

natural,  225 

passive,  226 

species,  225 
Indifferent  remedies,  290 
Indirect  healing  method,  5 
Inhalations,  105,  106 
Inoculation,  diagnostic,  254 

methods  of,  225 
Internal  antiseptics,  213 
Intestinal    diseases,    dietetic    treat- 
ment of,  40 
general  therapeutics  of,  38 
mechanical  treatment  of,  51 
operative  treatment  of,  51 
Intracutaneous  tuberculin  test,  260 
Intradermal  tuberculin  test,  260 
Involvents,  290 
Irritants,  146 

Kneading,  276 

Lactics,  122 

Lactifuges,  127 

Laxatives,  41 

Lenitives,  41 

Ligation,  68 

Light,  208,  296 

Litholytics,  113 

Lithothryptics,  113 

Liver  diseases,  dietetic  treatment  of, 
55 
general  therapeutics  of,  52 
mechanical  treatment  of,  55 
remedies,  53 

Locomotory   organs,   general   thera- 
peutics of,  288 

Lubricants,  290 

Mallein,  260 

test,  cutaneous,  263 

ophthalmic,  260,  263 

subcutaneous,  261 
Malpighi,  16 
Mange  remedies,  160 
Massage,  276 


300 


INDEX 


Masticatives,  131 
Masticatorics,  131 
Mechanical  antidotes,  216 
disinfectants,  208 
treatment  of  intestinal  diseases, 
51 
of  liver  diseases,  55 
of  stomach  diseases,  33 
Mechanicals,  290 
Mechanotherapy,  276 
Medicinal  plastics,  135 
Metabohsm,  general  therapeutics  of 

the  diseases  of,  133 
Metasyncritics,  159 
Methods  of  heaUng,  4 
Mitigation,  methods  of,  230 
MonJk's  medicine,  14 
Morgagni,  16 

Mucous  membranes,   general  thera- 
peutics of,  143 
Mucus-dissolving  remedies,  109 
Mydriatics,  141 
Myotics,  142 

Narcosis,  101 

Narcotic  stomachics,  32 

styptics,  49 
Narcotics, '97 
Nauseosa,  34 
Nauseotics,  34 
Nerve  sedatives,  97 

stimulants,  93 
Nervines,  90 
Nervous  system,  general  therapeutics 

of  diseases  of,  88 
Neurotics,  90 
Nutrients,  134,  137 

Obstruents,  48 
Obtegents,  290 
Obvolvents,  290 
Odinegogues,  119 

Operative    treatment    of    intestinal 
diseases,  51 
of  stomach  diseases,  34 
Ophthalmic  mallein  test,  260,  263 

tuberculin  test,  259 
Osmetics,  40 

Palliative  method,  6 
Paracelsus,  9,  14 
Paralyzants,  97 
Parasitics,  external,  160 
Par6,  16 
Paregorics,  97 
Parturefacients,  119 
Pasteurization,  207 


Pellentics,  119 
Peptics,  29 
Peripherics,  92 
Peristaltics,  40 
Phlebotomy,  286 
Physical  antidotes,  216 
Physiological  antidotes,  219 

healing  method,  6 

stomachics,  29 
Plastics,  134 

food,  134 

medicinal,  134 
Pneumatics,  107 
Polysphygmics,  57 
Preservants,  169 

Preservation  of  animal  products,  214 
Priessnitz,  19,  265 
Priessnitz's  dressing,  273 
Prophylactic  method,  7 
Protective  vaccination,  236 
Protectives,  48,  290 
Ptarmics,  107 
Ptyalogogues,  131 
Pupil-contracting  remedies,  142 
Pupil-dilating  remedies,  141 
Purgatives,  40 
Pustulants,  146,  148 

Rademacher,  19 
Radical  healing  method,  6 
Rational  healing  method,  6 
Reducing  remedies,  138 
Refrigerants,  159 

Regulations  concerning  vaccination, 
237 
for  disinfection,  184 
Resolvents,  76 
Resorbents,  76 

Respiratory  apparatus,  general  thera- 
peutics of  the  diseases  of,  103 
Roborants,  137 
Rontgen's  rays,  296 
Rophetics,  292 
Rubbing,  276 
Rubefacients,  146,  148 
Ruminatorics,  32 

Saline  stomachics,  30 
Schonlein,  18 
Sedantics,  97 
Sedatives,  cardiac,  58 

nerve,  97 
Serum  therapy,  22 
Sialagogues,  131 
Sialics,  131 

Skin,  general  therapeutics  of,  143, 144 
Solvents,  291 


INDEX 


301 


Somniferics,  97 

Soporifics,  97 

Spasmodics,  93 

Spinalics,  92 

Spinants,  93 

Spontaneous  arrest  of  hemorrhage,  66 

Stahl,  18 

Statistical  healing  method,  7 

Sternutatories,  107 

Stimulant  stomachics,  31 

Stimulants,  cardiac,  58 

nerve,  93 
Stomach  diseases,  dietetic  treatment 
of,  29 
general  therapeutics  of,  25 
mechanical  treatment  of,  33 
operative  treatment  of,  34 
Stomachics,  29 
Stroking,  276 
Styptics,  general,  70 

intestinal,  48 

local  or  topical,  69 
Subcutaneous  mallein  test,  261 

tuberculin  test,  258 
Sudorifics,  129 
Suppletives,  29 
Suppm-ants,  148 
Suppuratives,  146 
Sydenham,  17 
Symptomatic  antidotes,  220 

healing  method,  6 

Tapping,  276 
Temperantics,  97 
Temperants,  159 
Tetanies,  93 
Thermopenetration,  285 
Tonics,  137,  157 
cardiac,  58 
Torsion.  68 

Transfusion  of  blood,  62 
Transudates,  general  therapeutics  of, 
73 


Tuberculin,  258 

test,   cutaneous  and  intracuta- 
neous, 260 
ophthalmic,  259 
subcutaneous,  258 

Udder,   general   therapeutics  of  the 

diseases  of,  118 
Uniting  remedies,  293 
Urinary  organs,  general  therapeutics 

of  the  diseases  of,  112 
Uterines,  119 
Uterus,  general  therapeutics  of  the 

diseases  of,  118 

Vaccination,  225,  250 

curative,  252 

emergency,  236 

for  the  different  diseases,  237 

methods  of,  233 

prophylactic,  236 

protective,  236 

pmposes  of,  235 

varieties  of,  235 
Vaso-astringents,  71 
Vaso-constringents,  71 
Vasodilants,  72 
Vasodilators,  72 
Vasomotor  stimulants,  71 
Venesection,  286 
Vermifuges,  165 
Vesal,  16 

Vesicants,  146,  148 
Vibration,  276 
Vital  healing  method,  8 
Vomiting,  effects  of,  35 
Vomitives,  34 
Vomitories,  34 
Von  Haller,  18 

Waiting  healing  method,  7 
Water  as  a  remedy,  265 
Worm  remedies,  165 
Wound  disinfectants,  209 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE        i 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS      I 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED   FOR   FAILURE  TO   RETURN 
THIS   BOOK   ON   THE   DATE  DUE.   THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY    AND    TO    $1.00    ON    THE    SEVENTH     DAY 
OVERDUE. 

BIOLOGY  LIBRARY 

AJJG    12  10^0 

i 

JUL  -  ^im 

1 

Nnv-g  19/ ■ 

1 
] 

N0V8'l971  i;^ 

J&B-t9m? 

/mr. 

■«2  91972  15 

LD  21-5m-7,'37 

G 


oxvt^5fi^ 


•^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAIvIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


